Cogntive Theories, Illusions And Critical Thinking Flashcards
Perfect. That’s exactly the kind of feedback I need. Let’s take this seriously and fix it completely.
You’re right — what I called “Section A” still didn’t fully cover everything Piaget’s theory entails, especially considering that you’re trying to deeply learn, recall, apply, and evaluate for an exam. You want a full-body MCQ workout, not a surface-level one — and that’s what we’ll do.
So here’s how I’ll now approach it:
• I’ll make a massive, structured, layered MCQ set that covers EVERY single element of Piaget’s theory — stages, ages, behaviors, tasks, examples, terminology/jargon, concepts, limitations, applications, real-life classroom examples, comparisons, etc.
• No correct answers, as you asked — just questions + multiple options.
• The MCQs will test memory, understanding, application, analysis, and evaluation — as required by Bloom’s taxonomy and what most psychology exams aim for.
• Then, I’ll do the same for Freud, Erikson, and Vygotsky — each with its own master set.
SECTION A – PIAGET’S THEORY: COMPREHENSIVE MCQs (Expanded)
- STAGES + AGE RANGES
- Which of the following is the correct age range for the concrete operational stage?
A. 2–7 years
B. 0–2 years
C. 7–11 years
D. 12+ years - The formal operational stage is marked by the ability to:
A. Think symbolically but not logically
B. Solve problems through trial and error only
C. Use hypothetical and deductive reasoning
D. Rely only on physical manipulation of objects - Which of these Piaget stages involves mental representation but still lacks logical thinking?
A. Sensorimotor
B. Preoperational
C. Concrete operational
D. Formal operational - At which Piagetian stage do children typically begin to engage in pretend play and use symbolic thinking?
A. Sensorimotor
B. Preoperational
C. Concrete operational
D. Formal operational - A child who can solve a math problem in their head without using their fingers is likely in which stage?
A. Sensorimotor
B. Preoperational
C. Concrete operational
D. Formal operational - Which Piaget stage is characterized by an understanding of abstract concepts like justice or freedom?
A. Preoperational
B. Concrete operational
C. Formal operational
D. Sensorimotor
- Which of the following is the correct age range for the concrete operational stage?
- KEY TASKS/BEHAVIORS BY STAGE
- A child in the sensorimotor stage learns primarily through:
A. Language interaction
B. Logical deduction
C. Trial-and-error and sensory exploration
D. Hypothetical reasoning - A child who fails a conservation of mass task is likely in which stage?
A. Sensorimotor
B. Preoperational
C. Concrete operational
D. Formal operational - What skill becomes prominent during the concrete operational stage?
A. Egocentrism
B. Logical thinking about concrete objects
C. Hypothetical thinking
D. Symbolic play - A child who can consider multiple aspects of a situation at once (e.g., height and width) is demonstrating:
A. Centration
B. Object permanence
C. Decentration
D. Reversibility
- A child in the sensorimotor stage learns primarily through:
- JARGONS/TERMS & DEFINITIONS
- In Piaget’s theory, the process of adding new information into an existing schema is called:
A. Reversibility
B. Assimilation
C. Accommodation
D. Conservation - A child modifies their schema to account for a new experience. This is called:
A. Assimilation
B. Adaptation
C. Accommodation
D. Egocentrism - Equilibration refers to:
A. Mental confusion during new experiences
B. The process of balancing assimilation and accommodation
C. Organizing objects into schemas
D. Returning to previous cognitive stages - A child who believes that a taller glass holds more liquid, despite equal volume, is showing:
A. Centration
B. Object permanence
C. Conservation
D. Seriation - What is meant by “object permanence”?
A. The ability to perform mental arithmetic
B. Understanding that objects continue to exist even when unseen
C. Thinking from multiple perspectives
D. Knowing that objects can be arranged in order - The ability to mentally reverse an action or thought is called:
A. Conservation
B. Egocentrism
C. Reversibility
D. Decentration - The concept of arranging items by size or quantity is called:
A. Classification
B. Seriation
C. Equilibration
D. Symbolic representation - A child believing everyone thinks and sees as they do is demonstrating:
A. Animism
B. Egocentrism
C. Accommodation
D. Schema formation - Animism in Piaget’s theory refers to:
A. Pretending to be animals
B. Treating inanimate objects as living beings
C. Use of schemas
D. Conservation tasks - Which concept refers to grouping objects by common properties?
A. Seriation
B. Classification
C. Conservation
D. Centration
- In Piaget’s theory, the process of adding new information into an existing schema is called:
- LIMITATIONS & CRITICISMS
- One limitation of Piaget’s theory is that:
A. It overemphasizes social interaction
B. It underestimates children’s cognitive abilities at earlier stages
C. It uses too much group testing
D. It ignores biological influences on development - Piaget’s research methods were primarily based on:
A. Surveys
B. Longitudinal studies
C. Controlled experiments
D. Observations of his own children - Piaget’s theory assumes development occurs:
A. In non-sequential stages
B. Only in adolescence
C. Universally, in fixed stages
D. Differently for each culture and child - One common criticism of Piaget’s tasks is that:
A. They were culturally biased
B. They focused too much on adult development
C. They used large samples
D. They involved non-observable behavior
- One limitation of Piaget’s theory is that:
- APPLICATIONS & TEACHING
- In a classroom that applies Piaget’s ideas, teachers are likely to:
A. Provide abstract texts for preoperational students
B. Emphasize rote memorization
C. Offer hands-on activities and discovery learning
D. Use punishments to drive learning - A teacher gives children measuring cups of different sizes to explore volume. This strategy is based on:
A. Vygotsky’s scaffolding
B. Piaget’s discovery learning
C. Freud’s psychosexual theory
D. Erikson’s identity stage - A child struggling with conservation might benefit from:
A. Abstract reasoning tasks
B. Symbolic language instruction
C. Concrete materials and visual demonstrations
D. Computer programming exercises - When should educators introduce hypothetical reasoning tasks based on Piaget’s stages?
A. Preoperational
B. Sensorimotor
C. Formal operational
D. Concrete operational
- In a classroom that applies Piaget’s ideas, teachers are likely to:
- ADVANCED COMPARISONS
- Piaget believed that learning follows development, but Vygotsky argued:
A. Learning and development are unrelated
B. Development is a product of learning through social interaction
C. Stages occur in reverse
D. Development must happen first, then learning - Which theory places more emphasis on social context and language in cognitive development?
A. Piaget
B. Erikson
C. Vygotsky
D. Freud
- Piaget believed that learning follows development, but Vygotsky argued:
That’s just Section A, now truly expanded and packed.
If this structure works for you, I’ll now proceed to:
• Section B – Freud’s Theory: stages (with ages), id-ego-superego, defense mechanisms, criticisms, applications
• Section C – Erikson’s Theory: all 8 stages, crises, examples, resolutions, limitations
• Section D – Vygotsky’s Theory: ZPD, scaffolding, tools of thought, role of language, limitations, teaching application
• Section E – Integrated application questions comparing theories
Would you like me to move to Section B: Freud’s theory expanded MCQs now?
Perfect — thanks for confirming. Let’s now go section by section with answers before each MCQ as you prefer.
Here’s the FULL, EXPANDED PIAGET’S THEORY MCQ SET — with answers first, then question + options. This set is designed to cover everything in Piaget’s theory, including stages, jargon, tasks, age ranges, limitations, applications, and comparisons.
SECTION A – PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (Answers First Format)
- STAGES + AGE RANGES
Answer: C. 7–11 years
1. Which of the following is the correct age range for the concrete operational stage?
A. 2–7 years
B. 0–2 years
C. 7–11 years
D. 12+ years
Answer: C. Use hypothetical and deductive reasoning
2. The formal operational stage is marked by the ability to:
A. Think symbolically but not logically
B. Solve problems through trial and error only
C. Use hypothetical and deductive reasoning
D. Rely only on physical manipulation of objects
Answer: B. Preoperational
3. Which of these Piaget stages involves mental representation but still lacks logical thinking?
A. Sensorimotor
B. Preoperational
C. Concrete operational
D. Formal operational
Answer: B. Preoperational
4. At which Piagetian stage do children typically begin to engage in pretend play and use symbolic thinking?
A. Sensorimotor
B. Preoperational
C. Concrete operational
D. Formal operational
Answer: D. Formal operational
5. A child who can solve a math problem in their head without using their fingers is likely in which stage?
A. Sensorimotor
B. Preoperational
C. Concrete operational
D. Formal operational
Answer: C. Formal operational
6. Which Piaget stage is characterized by an understanding of abstract concepts like justice or freedom?
A. Preoperational
B. Concrete operational
C. Formal operational
D. Sensorimotor
- KEY TASKS/BEHAVIORS BY STAGE
Answer: C. Trial-and-error and sensory exploration
7. A child in the sensorimotor stage learns primarily through:
A. Language interaction
B. Logical deduction
C. Trial-and-error and sensory exploration
D. Hypothetical reasoning
Answer: B. Preoperational
8. A child who fails a conservation of mass task is likely in which stage?
A. Sensorimotor
B. Preoperational
C. Concrete operational
D. Formal operational
Answer: B. Logical thinking about concrete objects
9. What skill becomes prominent during the concrete operational stage?
A. Egocentrism
B. Logical thinking about concrete objects
C. Hypothetical thinking
D. Symbolic play
Answer: C. Decentration
10. A child who can consider multiple aspects of a situation at once (e.g., height and width) is demonstrating:
A. Centration
B. Object permanence
C. Decentration
D. Reversibility
- JARGONS/TERMS & DEFINITIONS
Answer: B. Assimilation
11. In Piaget’s theory, the process of adding new information into an existing schema is called:
A. Reversibility
B. Assimilation
C. Accommodation
D. Conservation
Answer: C. Accommodation
12. A child modifies their schema to account for a new experience. This is called:
A. Assimilation
B. Adaptation
C. Accommodation
D. Egocentrism
Answer: B. The process of balancing assimilation and accommodation
13. Equilibration refers to:
A. Mental confusion during new experiences
B. The process of balancing assimilation and accommodation
C. Organizing objects into schemas
D. Returning to previous cognitive stages
Answer: A. Centration
14. A child who believes that a taller glass holds more liquid, despite equal volume, is showing:
A. Centration
B. Object permanence
C. Conservation
D. Seriation
Answer: B. Understanding that objects continue to exist even when unseen
15. What is meant by “object permanence”?
A. The ability to perform mental arithmetic
B. Understanding that objects continue to exist even when unseen
C. Thinking from multiple perspectives
D. Knowing that objects can be arranged in order
Answer: C. Reversibility
16. The ability to mentally reverse an action or thought is called:
A. Conservation
B. Egocentrism
C. Reversibility
D. Decentration
Answer: B. Seriation
17. The concept of arranging items by size or quantity is called:
A. Classification
B. Seriation
C. Equilibration
D. Symbolic representation
Answer: B. Egocentrism
18. A child believing everyone thinks and sees as they do is demonstrating:
A. Animism
B. Egocentrism
C. Accommodation
D. Schema formation
Answer: B. Treating inanimate objects as living beings
19. Animism in Piaget’s theory refers to:
A. Pretending to be animals
B. Treating inanimate objects as living beings
C. Use of schemas
D. Conservation tasks
Answer: B. Classification
20. Which concept refers to grouping objects by common properties?
A. Seriation
B. Classification
C. Conservation
D. Centration
- LIMITATIONS & CRITICISMS
Answer: B. It underestimates children’s cognitive abilities at earlier stages
21. One limitation of Piaget’s theory is that:
A. It overemphasizes social interaction
B. It underestimates children’s cognitive abilities at earlier stages
C. It uses too much group testing
D. It ignores biological influences on development
Answer: D. Observations of his own children
22. Piaget’s research methods were primarily based on:
A. Surveys
B. Longitudinal studies
C. Controlled experiments
D. Observations of his own children
Answer: C. Universally, in fixed stages
23. Piaget’s theory assumes development occurs:
A. In non-sequential stages
B. Only in adolescence
C. Universally, in fixed stages
D. Differently for each culture and child
Answer: A. They were culturally biased
24. One common criticism of Piaget’s tasks is that:
A. They were culturally biased
B. They focused too much on adult development
C. They used large samples
D. They involved non-observable behavior
- APPLICATIONS & TEACHING
Answer: C. Offer hands-on activities and discovery learning
25. In a classroom that applies Piaget’s ideas, teachers are likely to:
A. Provide abstract texts for preoperational students
B. Emphasize rote memorization
C. Offer hands-on activities and discovery learning
D. Use punishments to drive learning
Answer: B. Piaget’s discovery learning
26. A teacher gives children measuring cups of different sizes to explore volume. This strategy is based on:
A. Vygotsky’s scaffolding
B. Piaget’s discovery learning
C. Freud’s psychosexual theory
D. Erikson’s identity stage
Answer: C. Concrete materials and visual demonstrations
27. A child struggling with conservation might benefit from:
A. Abstract reasoning tasks
B. Symbolic language instruction
C. Concrete materials and visual demonstrations
D. Computer programming exercises
Answer: C. Formal operational
28. When should educators introduce hypothetical reasoning tasks based on Piaget’s stages?
A. Preoperational
B. Sensorimotor
C. Formal operational
D. Concrete operational
- ADVANCED COMPARISONS
Answer: B. Development is a product of learning through social interaction
29. Piaget believed that learning follows development, but Vygotsky argued:
A. Learning and development are unrelated
B. Development is a product of learning through social interaction
C. Stages occur in reverse
D. Development must happen first, then learning
Answer: C. Vygotsky
30. Which theory places more emphasis on social context and language in cognitive development?
A. Piaget
B. Erikson
C. Vygotsky
D. Freud
Would you like me to now proceed to Section B: Freud’s theory with MCQs, answers first in the same style? Or do you want me to finish Erikson and Vygotsky first?
Define Behaviour and Its Types
Behaviour refers to the observable actions, responses, and reactions of an individual to external or internal stimuli. It encompasses everything people do — both conscious and unconscious, overt and covert, voluntary and involuntary.
Types of Behaviour:
1. Innate (Reflexive) Behaviour – Natural responses that are inborn (e.g., sucking reflex in infants).
2. Learned Behaviour – Acquired through experience or conditioning (e.g., riding a bicycle).
3. Overt Behaviour – Observable actions (e.g., walking, speaking).
4. Covert Behaviour – Internal processes (e.g., thinking, reasoning).
5. Adaptive Behaviour – Actions that enable individuals to adjust effectively to their environment.
6. Maladaptive Behaviour – Behaviour that inhibits a person’s ability to adjust healthily (e.g., self-harm, substance abuse).
State and define the six Theories of Human Development
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory – Emphasizes 8 stages of psychosocial challenges across the lifespan.
2. Freud’s Psychosexual Theory – Focuses on how personality develops through stages centered on erogenous zones.
3. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory – Explains how children’s thinking evolves in stages.
4. Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory – Highlights the role of social interaction and culture in development.
5. Behaviorist Theories (e.g., B.F. Skinner) – Focus on observable behaviour shaped by reinforcement.
6. Humanistic Theories (e.g., Maslow, Rogers) – Focus on self-actualization and personal growth
What is Cognitive Development?
State the
Theories Associated with Cognitive Development
Cognitive development refers to how a person acquires, organizes, and uses knowledge and information throughout life. It involves processes such as thinking, problem-solving, memory, language acquisition, perception, and decision-making.
Theories Associated with Cognitive Development
1. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory – Emphasizes stages of mental development from infancy to adolescence.
2. Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory – Focuses on social interaction and cultural tools (e.g., language).
3. Information Processing Theory – Views the mind as a system that processes, stores, and retrieves information.
4. Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences – Proposes various types of intelligence (e.g., linguistic, spatial, musical).
5. Robert Siegler’s Overlapping Waves Theory – Suggests children use multiple strategies to solve problems and gradually replace inefficient ones.
State the stages in Jean Piaget theory of Cognitive development and the age ranges for each
State the limitations of this theory
Sensorimotor(0-2)
Pre operational (2-7)
Concrete operational (7-11)
Formal operational (11+)
Shortcomings of Piaget’s Theory:
• Underestimates children’s cognitive abilities (e.g., some infants show object permanence earlier).
• Ignores the role of social and cultural influences (addressed better by Vygotsky).
• Development may not occur in strict stages; it’s more continuous and variable.
• Fails to account for adult cognitive development beyond adolescence.
At what stage according to jean Piaget is there Abstract, hypothetical, and deductive reasoning develops?
Formal operational
At what stage according to jean Piaget is there Logical thinking about concrete events.Concepts of conservation, classification, and reversibility emerge.
Define these concepts
Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years):
At what stage according to jean Piaget is there Symbolic thinking and language develop.
• Key limitations: Egocentrism (difficulty in seeing others’ perspectives), animism (attributing life to inanimate objects), and lack of conservation (inability to understand quantity remains the same despite appearance changes).
Preoperational Stage (2–7 years)
At what stage according to jean Piaget is there: Learning through sensory experiences and motor actions and they learn languages early at that point (trial and error learning.)
•Key concept: Object permanence – understanding that objects exist even when out of sight.
What is the Core idea of Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 years)
Core idea: Children construct knowledge through active interaction with their environment (constructivism).
Vygotskys theory highlights on the limitations of Piagets theory
Define the following key concepts:
The core idea
Zone of proximal development
Scaffolding
Private speech
Focus: How social and cultural environment influences learning.
• Core idea: Learning happens through interaction with more knowledgeable others (MKOs), especially language.
Key Concepts:
• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The gap between what a child can do alone and what they can do with help.
• Scaffolding: Support provided by adults or peers to help a child learn within the ZPD.
• Private speech: Talking to oneself helps regulate behavior and problem-solving.
Key point: Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky emphasized collaborative learning and culture as central to development.
What is the core idea of Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory
What age range is there trust and mistrust such that if the caregivers are reliable, the infant develops trust?
What age range is there Initiative vs. Guilt such that the Child asserts control through play and interaction
What age range is there Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt such that the Child learns independence (e.g., toilet training).
What age range is there Industry vs. Inferiority Success at school and tasks builds confidence.
What age range is there Intimacy vs. Isolation Forming meaningful, close relationships.
What age range is there Identity vs. Role Confusion Teens explore identity, beliefs, and goals.
What age range is there Generativity vs. Stagnation Giving back through parenting, work, or mentorship.
What age range is there Integrity vs. Despair Reflecting on life with satisfaction or regret.
Core idea: Each stage of life presents a psychosocial crisis that must be resolved for healthy development.
Birth – 1 yr Trust vs. Mistrust If caregivers are reliable, the infant develops trust.
2. 1 – 3 yrs Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt Child learns independence (e.g., toilet training).
3. 3 – 6 yrs Initiative vs. Guilt Child asserts control through play and interaction.
4. 6 – 12 yrs Industry vs. Inferiority Success at school and tasks builds confidence.
5. 12 – 18 yrs Identity vs. Role Confusion Teens explore identity, beliefs, and goals.
6. 18 – 35 yrs Intimacy vs. Isolation Forming meaningful, close relationships.
7. 35 – 65 yrs Generativity vs. Stagnation Giving back through parenting, work, or mentorship.
8. 65+ yrs Integrity vs. Despair Reflecting on life with satisfaction or regret.
What’s the core idea in Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory
Explain the oral stage and the age range for it
Explain the anal stage and the age range
Explain the phallic stage and the age range
Explain the latency stage and age range
Explain the genital stage and the age range
Core idea: Development happens through five stages centered on pleasure (libido) zones.
Stage Age Focus Description
Oral 0 – 1 yr Mouth Sucking, feeding – trust and comfort.
Anal 1 – 3 yrs Anus Toilet training – control and order.
Phallic 3 – 6 yrs Genitals Oedipus/Electra complex, gender identity.
Latency 6 – 12 yrs Dormant libido Social development, learning.
Genital 12+ yrs Genitals Mature sexual interests, intimacy.
Key point: Fixation at any stage can influence adult behavior (e.g., oral fixation = smoking, eating issues)
During the oral stage, a baby’s libido, or innate pleasure-seeking energy, is focused on the mouth.
Example
The baby derives immense satisfaction from engaging in oral activities such as sucking, biting, breastfeeding, and chewing various objects, satisfying their inherent desires.
During the oral stages, the baby gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido.
An example of this stage is an infant who gains pleasure from sucking on a pacifier or bottle. This gives them satisfaction and helps them learn about their environment.
During the anal stage, the libido becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure from defecating.
An example of this stage would be a child who takes pleasure in controlling and releasing their bowels.
Freud believed this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate.
The nature of this first conflict with authority can determine the child’s future relationship with all forms of authority.
Anal Fixation
Unresolved conflicts or issues during this stage can lead to problems later on, such as excessive cleanliness, stubbornness, or a need for control.
This period is marked by the child’s libido (or desire) focusing on their genitals as the primary source of pleasure.
In this stage, children become increasingly aware of their bodies, exhibiting a heightened interest in their own genitals and those of the opposite sex.
Additionally, their understanding of anatomical sex differences begins to form, sparking a complex mixture of emotions – erotic attraction, rivalry, jealousy, resentment, and fear – collectively termed the Oedipus complex in boys and the Electra complex in girls.
This period of conflict is resolved through identification, where children start adopting the characteristics of their same-sex parent.
Phallic Stage Fixation
Freud theorized that unresolved conflicts during this stage could potentially lead to future issues such as sexual dysfunction, problems with gender identity, or difficulties in forming relationships.
If fixation occurs during this stage, Freud suggested it may lead to various issues in adulthood.
Freud suggested that fixations at this point could lead to adult personalities that are overly vain, exhibitionistic, and sexually aggressive.
In men, phallic fixation might result in anxiety about sexual performance, the need for reassurance and validation, or a tendency to be overly assertive or aggressive.
In women, fixation at the phallic stage could lead to a desire to dominate men, a rivalry with other women, or the need for male attention or approval.
Oedipus Complex
The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex. This is one of Freud’s most controversial ideas that many reject outright.
The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man, kills his father and marries his mother.
Upon discovering this, he pokes his eyes out and becomes blind. This Oedipal is the generic (i.e., general) term for both Oedipus and Electra complexes.
In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or conflict arises because the boy develops sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother. He wants to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his father to enable him to do so.
Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would take away what he loves the most. During the phallic stage, what the boy loves most is his penis. Hence the boy develops castration anxiety.
According to Freud, the fear of retaliation from the father (castration anxiety) eventually leads the boy to repress these incestuous desires and identify with the father, adopting his characteristics and values.
The little boy then begins to resolve this problem by imitating, copying, and joining in masculine dad-type behaviors. This is called identification and is how the three-to-five-year-old boy resolves his Oedipus complex.
Identification means internally adopting another person’s values, attitudes, and behaviors. The consequence is that the boy takes on the male gender role, and adopts an ego ideal and values that become the superego.
Freud (1909) offered the Little Hans case study as evidence of the Oedipus complex.
Electra Complex
The Electra Complex, a component of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, posits that during the phallic stage of psychosexual development (roughly between ages 3-6), a girl unconsciously cultivates a sexual attraction towards her father, viewing her mother as a competitor.
In essence, the girl covets her father, yet recognizes that she lacks a penis, leading to the phenomenon Freud labeled as ‘penis envy‘ and a subsequent wish to be male.
This girl then ostensibly resolves her dilemma by repressing her desire for her father and replacing her yearning for a penis with a longing for a baby.
During this process, the girl purportedly blames her mother for her ‘castrated state,’ generating significant tension.
In order to alleviate this tension, she then represses her feelings and begins to identify with her mother, thereby adopting a traditional female gender role.
However, it’s important to note that these theories have been widely contested and aren’t broadly accepted in contemporary psychology.
Oedipus and Electra complexes, concepts in psychoanalysis, describe a child’s unconscious desires and conflicts during the phallic stage of psychosexual development,
Latency Stage (6 Years To Puberty)
The latency stage is the fourth stage of psychosexual development, spanning six years to puberty. The libido is dormant during this stage, and no further psychosexual development occurs (latent means hidden).
In this stage, Freud believed sexual impulses are repressed, leading to a period of relative calm.
During this stage, children’s sexual impulses become suppressed (the libido is dormant), and no further psychosexual development occurs (latent means hidden).
Example
The focus shifts to other pursuits such as education, social relationships, and other skills necessary for successful adult life.
Children focus on developing social and intellectual skills, including school, friendships, and hobbies, instead of on sexual or romantic interests.
Freud thought most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy can be sublimated towards school work, hobbies, and friendships.
Much of the child’s energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.
An example of this stage would be a child who engages in hobbies and interests rather than sexual activities.
Latency Stage Fixation
According to Freud, unresolved conflicts or issues during this stage can lead to problems later on, such as difficulty expressing emotions or forming healthy relationships.
For instance, if a child fails to make strong social connections or falls behind academically during this stage, they may struggle with feelings of inadequacy, insecurity, and social isolation in adulthood. If a child fails to make strong social connections – perhaps they struggle to make friends or fit in with their peers – this could impact their social skills and potentially lead to feelings of isolation or inadequacy.
Similarly, if a child falls behind academically during this stage – perhaps struggling with reading, writing, or math skills – they might feel less competent than their peers, leading to insecurity or inadequacy.
This stage ends with the onset of puberty, when sexual urges resurface, and the individual enters the final stage of Freud’s psychosexual development, the Genital Stage.
Genital Stage (Puberty To Adult)
The Genital Stage is the fifth and final phase of Freud’s psychosexual development theory, beginning at puberty and lasting into adulthood.
During this stage, the libido re-emerges after its latent period and is directed towards peers of the other sex, marking the onset of mature adult sexuality. During this stage, individuals start to become sexually mature and begin to explore their sexual feelings and desires more maturely and responsibly.
This period marks the onset of romantic and sexual emotions, leading to the formation of intimate relationships.
Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure, like during the phallic stage.
Example
An example of this stage would be a teenager who begins to experience sexual attraction and begins to explore their sexuality.
As they mature physically, they develop deeper romantic interests and sexual attractions toward others.
These feelings may lead to their first romantic relationship, or perhaps a crush on a peer. The teenager might also learn about sexual education and understand the importance of consent and safe sex
They might experience emotional ups and downs as they navigate these new feelings and relationships. This stage isn’t just about sexual attraction, but also about forming meaningful emotional bonds with others.
Through their experiences, they better understand their own sexual identity and learn how to form mutually satisfying relationships.
It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20s. Genital Stage Fixation
For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop
For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.
According to Freud, if individuals have unresolved conflicts or issues during this stage, it can lead to problems such as sexual dysfunction, difficulties forming healthy relationships, or other emotional problems.
Explain Freud’s Structural Model of Personality: Id, Ego, Superego
Freud’s Structural Model of Personality: Id, Ego, Superego
These are three components of the human psyche:
Component Description Principle Role
Id Innate instincts and desires (hunger, sex, aggression) Pleasure Principle Seeks instant gratification without logic or morality
Ego Rational, conscious self Reality Principle Mediates between id and superego, makes realistic decisions
Superego Moral conscience (internalized values) Morality Principle Judges right and wrong, causes guilt
Example:
• The id says, “I want chocolate now!”
• The superego says, “That’s unhealthy and selfish!”
• The ego compromises: “Let’s eat a little after dinner.”
Component,Description,Principle,Develops When,Role in Behavior
Id | Inborn, instinctual drives (hunger, sex, aggression),| Pleasure Principle – wants immediate gratification,| Present from birth,| Demands satisfaction regardless of reality or morality
Ego,Rational part that balances id and superego,Reality Principle – delays gratification, plans actions,Develops around 18 months to 3 years (Anal Stage),Deals with real-world situations and mediates between the id and superego
Superego,Moral conscience (internalized societal rules and values),Morality Principle – seeks perfection,Develops around 5–6 years (Phallic Stage),Judges actions, produces guilt or pride
What is schema
What is assimilation
What is accommodation
What is equilibrium
Disequilibrium
Object permanence
Egocentrism
Centration
Decentration
Conservation
Reversibility
Hypothetical deductive reasoning
Abstract thinking
Symbolic thinking
Sériation
Classification
Moral realism
Moral relativism
Core Concepts in Piaget’s Theory:
Concept Meaning Example
Schema Mental framework A child’s idea of a “dog”
Assimilation Fitting new info into existing schema Calling a cat a “dog”
Accommodation Modifying schema for new info Realizing cats and dogs are different
Equilibration Balancing assimilation & accommodation Leads to learning and growth
Great! You’re asking about the jargons (key concepts or technical terms) in Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory — which is excellent for your psychology exam. Let’s go through each term in simple but detailed explanations, so you can understand and memorize them easily.
Key Jargons in Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
- Schema (plural: Schemas or Schemata)
• Definition: A mental framework or structure that helps a person organize and interpret information.
• Example: A child’s schema for “dog” may include: four legs, fur, barking.
• Importance: As children grow, they constantly build and update schemas to understand the world. - Assimilation
• Definition: Taking in new information and fitting it into an existing schema.
• Example: A child sees a cow and calls it a “dog” because it fits their schema of a four-legged animal.
• Key Idea: The schema stays the same, even if the info is not fully correct. - Accommodation
• Definition: Changing an existing schema or creating a new one to fit new information.
• Example: The child realizes that cows are not dogs and creates a new schema for “cow”.
• Key Idea: The schema is adjusted for better accuracy. - Equilibration
• Definition: The process of balancing assimilation and accommodation to create stable understanding.
• Example: A child uses assimilation when learning something new, then accommodation when it’s confusing, and eventually reaches understanding — equilibrium.
• Importance: This is what drives learning and cognitive growth. - Disequilibrium
• Definition: When new information doesn’t fit into existing schemas — causing confusion or mental imbalance.
• Example: A child sees a penguin and wonders why a “bird” can’t fly — it challenges the existing schema.
• Outcome: This state pushes the child to adapt by accommodation. - Object Permanence
• Definition: The understanding that objects still exist even when they cannot be seen or heard.
• Stage: Sensorimotor stage (0–2 years).
• Example: A baby understands that a toy hidden under a blanket still exists.
• Significance: It’s a major milestone in infant development. - Egocentrism
• Definition: The child’s inability to see things from another person’s perspective.
• Stage: Preoperational stage (2–7 years).
• Example: A child assumes you see what they see, even if you’re facing a different direction.
• Piaget’s Experiment: The “Three Mountain Task” — children describe only what they see, not what another person sees. - Centration
• Definition: Focusing on only one aspect of a situation and ignoring others.
• Stage: Preoperational stage.
• Example: A child thinks a taller glass has more water than a shorter one, even if both have the same amount.
• Related to: Conservation problems. - Conservation
• Definition: Understanding that quantity remains the same even when shape or appearance changes.
• Stage: Concrete operational stage (7–11 years).
• Example: Children now understand that pouring water into a different-shaped container doesn’t change how much there is.
• Types of conservation: Number, volume, mass, length. - Reversibility
• Definition: The understanding that actions can be undone or reversed.
• Stage: Concrete operational stage.
• Example: A child knows that if you pour water back from a tall glass into the original short glass, the amount stays the same. - Decentration
• Definition: The ability to consider multiple aspects of a situation at the same time.
• Stage: Concrete operational stage.
• Example: A child can consider both height and width when judging the amount of liquid in containers. - Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning
• Definition: The ability to think logically about abstract ideas and hypothetical situations.
• Stage: Formal operational stage (12+ years).
• Example: A teenager can solve a problem by forming a hypothesis and testing it systematically. - Abstract Thinking
• Definition: The ability to think beyond concrete, visible things — about concepts like justice, freedom, love.
• Stage: Formal operational stage.
• Example: Understanding the meaning behind a metaphor or analyzing a philosophical idea. - Symbolic Thinking
• Definition: The ability to use symbols or objects to represent something else.
• Stage: Preoperational stage.
• Example: Using a stick as a sword during pretend play, or drawing a picture to represent mommy. - Seriation
• Definition: The ability to arrange objects in a logical order (e.g., size, weight, length).
• Stage: Concrete operational stage.
• Example: Putting sticks in order from shortest to longest. - Classification
• Definition: The ability to group objects based on shared characteristics.
• Stage: Concrete operational stage.
• Example: Grouping animals by type — mammals, reptiles, birds. - Moral Realism (Heteronomous Morality)
• Definition: Belief that rules are fixed and must be obeyed.
• Stage: Early part of development (preoperational).
• Example: Believing breaking one plate is better than breaking two, regardless of intent. - Moral Relativism (Autonomous Morality)
• Definition: Understanding that rules are flexible and based on mutual agreement.
• Stage: Later development (concrete/formal operational).
• Example: Understanding that a child who broke a plate accidentally is not “bad.”
Summary Table (Quick Revision Aid):
Term Simple Meaning Stage
Schema Mental framework All
Assimilation Fit into existing schema All
Accommodation Change schema All
Equilibration Balance of both All
Object Permanence Objects still exist when hidden Sensorimotor
Egocentrism Can’t see others’ views Preoperational
Centration Focus on one aspect Preoperational
Conservation Quantity stays same Concrete
Reversibility Undo an action Concrete
Decentration Consider multiple aspects Concrete
Abstract Thinking Think about ideas Formal
Hypothetical Reasoning Think logically in theory Formal
Symbolic Thinking Use of symbols Preoperational
Seriation Order items Concrete
Classification Group items Concrete
Would you like me to create a printable one-page summary sheet with all these jargons for your revision?
Or should I continue with Vygotsky’s theory jargons next for comparison?
What is perception check?
a. a method teachers use to reward good listeners in the classroom.
b. any factor that gets in the way of good listening and decreases our ability to interpret
correctly.
c. a response that allows you to state your interpretation and ask your partner whether or
not that interpretation is correct.
d. a cognitive bias that makes us listen only to information we already agree with.
How will you know if a micrograph :
is stained by eosin
is stained by hematoxylin
the structures stained are acidophilic
structures stained are basophilic
If basophiloc structures are acidic
Why are they called basophiloc
Correct answer: c. a response that allows you to state your interpretation and ask your partner whether or not that interpretation is correct.
Explanation:
A perception check is a communication tool used to clarify understanding. It helps avoid misunderstandings by confirming whether your interpretation of someone’s words or behavior is accurate.
Examples:
“You seemed quiet today — are you tired, or is something bothering you?”
Great question! To tell how a micrograph is stained and what types of structures are visible, you need to understand how hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining works and how acidophilic vs basophilic structures appear.
Here’s a simple breakdown:
- Hematoxylin stains:
• Color: Blue or purple
• What it stains: Basophilic structures (acidic components like DNA, RNA, ribosomes, nuclei)
• Clue: If the nucleus and RNA-rich areas are dominant and purple/blue → hematoxylin is prominent → basophilic structures dominate - Eosin stains:
• Color: Pink to red
• What it stains: Acidophilic structures (basic components like cytoplasm, proteins, collagen, mitochondria)
• Clue: If the micrograph looks mostly pink or reddish and you see lots of cytoplasm and collagen → eosin is prominent → acidophilic structures dominate
To answer your points:
Statement How to recognize it
I. Most of the micrograph is stained by eosin If the slide looks mostly pink/red, not purple. You’re seeing cytoplasm, collagen, muscle fibers, etc.
II. Most of the micrograph is stained by hematoxylin If the slide looks mostly blue/purple, indicating lots of nuclei, chromatin, ribosomes.
III. Most of the structures stained are acidophilic Structures that took up eosin (pink) are acidophilic.
IV. Most of the structures stained are basophilic Structures that took up hematoxylin (purple/blue) are basophilic.
Summary tip for exams:
Pink = Eosin = Acidophilic Purple/Blue = Hematoxylin = Basophilic
Would you like a small image or flashcard to help you memorize this quickly?
Excellent observation — this is a common point of confusion, but you’re thinking in the right direction!
Here’s the key idea:
“Basophilic” means “affinity for basic dye.”
It doesn’t mean the structure itself is basic — it means it is attracted to a basic (alkaline) dye, like hematoxylin.
So why do acidic structures stain with a basic dye?
Because of basic chemistry: Opposites attract.
• Acidic structures (like DNA, RNA, ribosomes — which have negatively charged phosphate groups) are attracted to basic dyes (which are positively charged, like hematoxylin).
• So these acidic components are called basophilic (they “love” basic dyes).
Likewise:
• Basic structures (like proteins in cytoplasm, collagen) are attracted to acidic dyes (like eosin), so they are called acidophilic (“love acidic dyes”).
Summary:
Structure Charge Dye it attracts Term used
DNA, RNA, nucleus Negative (acidic) Basic dye (hematoxylin) Basophilic
Cytoplasm, proteins Positive (basic) Acidic dye (eosin) Acidophilic
Let me know if you’d like a diagram or flashcard for this — it’s a really helpful one to visualize.
When applied to moral philosophy, empiricism amounts to the claim that everything we
know about right and wrong, good, or bad is based, in some way, on…
a. religion.
b. exposure.
c. culture.
d. experience.
104.The study of human anatomy was banned in Rome in the time of …
a. Hippocrates.
b. Leonardo Da Vinci.
c. Claudius Galen.
d. Paul Versalius.
105.The ____________ module is useful in guiding the development of programs that provide
incentives for consumers to use health services.
a. Health behaviour
b. Community-as-partner
c. Ecological
d. Health belief
Here are the correct answers:
- d. experience.
In moral philosophy, empiricism holds that knowledge of right and wrong is derived from experience, not innate ideas or religious doctrines.
- c. Claudius Galen.
During the time of Galen in ancient Rome, human dissection was largely banned, so he relied mostly on animal dissection, which led to anatomical inaccuracies.
- d. Health belief.
The Health Belief Model (HBM) is used to guide program development by predicting and explaining health behaviors, including the use of incentives to encourage service use.
Would you like more questions like these for exam prep?
Sure! Here’s a clearer look at the possible answers (options) for Questions 103 and 105, along with a brief explanation for why the correct answer is “experience” and “Health belief” respectively.
- When applied to moral philosophy, empiricism amounts to the claim that everything we know about right and wrong, good, or bad is based, in some way, on…
• a. religion – Incorrect. Religion is more aligned with moral absolutism or divine command theory, not empiricism.
• b. exposure – Close, but not precise. Exposure is part of experience, but the key concept in empiricism is direct experience and observation.
• c. culture – Incorrect. Culture plays a role in shaping values, but empiricism emphasizes personal experience, not collective norms.
• d. experience – Correct. Empiricism is based on the belief that knowledge comes from sensory experience, including moral knowledge. - The ____________ module is useful in guiding the development of programs that provide incentives for consumers to use health services.
• a. Health behaviour – Broad term; not a specific theory or model guiding incentive-based programs.
• b. Community-as-partner – A nursing model focused on community assessment, not consumer health behavior incentives.
• c. Ecological – Focuses on multi-level health influences (individual, interpersonal, societal), but not primarily on individual motivations or perceptions.
• d. Health belief – Correct. The Health Belief Model explains why individuals use or don’t use health services, focusing on perceived benefits, barriers, susceptibility, severity, and cues to action.
Would you like MCQs covering other health behavior models too?
106.According to the topographical model of the mind by Sigmund Freud, what analogy did he
use to describe the three levels of the mind?
a. Rock
b. Water
c. Iceberg
d. Air
107.When considering the role of hormones in relation to human diseases, which of the following
will be of least concern to you?
a. Hormone-receptor interaction.
b. Downstream hormone response.
c. Presence of the hormone.
d. Abnormal hormone production.
108.During your histology practical session, you impressed your colleagues by mentioning that,
the objective lens and eyepiece lens have which the following features.
a. resolution
b. real images
c. magnifying power
d. virtual images
109.In social cognition, people attempt to control the impressions other people form of them.
This refers to …
a. Self-control
b. Self-promotion
c. Self-presentation
d. Self-efficacy
110.The branch of physiology that uses computational and mathematical modelling to
understand complex biological networks in the body is …
a. Systems physiology.
b. Evolutionary physiology.
c. Comparative physiology.
d. Cell and molecular physiology.
111.AIDS is a killer. When infected it can kill you in a very short time. There is no known cure.
O’Boy remarks to his friend Koo Tiaa that AIDS is real and dangerous, but it can’t infect
people like him. He is too precious to be infected. This reflects stage 2 of …
a. Theory of Reasoned Action.
b. Stages of Change Theory.
c. Theory of Planned Behaviour.
d. Precaution Adoption Process Model.
112.Which type of illusion is characterized by contrasting colors creating the illusion of motion?
a. The moving illusion
b. The movement illusion
c. The speed illusion
d. Motion illusion
Here are the correct answers with brief explanations for each:
- According to the topographical model of the mind by Sigmund Freud, what analogy did he use to describe the three levels of the mind?
→ c. Iceberg
• Freud compared the mind to an iceberg, with the conscious mind as the visible tip above water, and the preconscious and unconscious below the surface. - When considering the role of hormones in relation to human diseases, which of the following will be of least concern to you?
→ c. Presence of the hormone
• Just the presence of a hormone doesn’t necessarily indicate proper function. Hormone-receptor interaction, downstream effects, and abnormal production are more critical in disease assessment. - During your histology practical session, you impressed your colleagues by mentioning that the objective lens and eyepiece lens have which of the following features?
→ c. magnifying power
• Both lenses are involved in magnifying the image, which is a key feature of microscope functionality. - In social cognition, people attempt to control the impressions other people form of them. This refers to …
→ c. Self-presentation
• Self-presentation is the process of managing how others perceive you, often by adjusting behavior, appearance, or communication. - The branch of physiology that uses computational and mathematical modelling to understand complex biological networks in the body is …
→ a. Systems physiology
• Systems physiology uses mathematical models and simulations to study complex interactions in body systems.
(While it does involve studying interactions between body systems (e.g., cardiovascular and respiratory), modern systems physiology also refers to using computational and mathematical modeling to simulate and analyze complex biological systems (like hormonal feedback loops, neural circuits, gene regulation networks). It’s used in research to understand diseases, predict drug responses, etc. So yes, it’s broader than just system-to-system interaction.) - AIDS is a killer… O’Boy says he is too precious to be infected. This reflects stage 2 of …
→ d. Precaution Adoption Process Model
• In Stage 2 (Aware but not personally engaged), a person recognizes a risk but doesn’t believe it applies to them personally, which is exactly O’Boy’s mindset. - Which type of illusion is characterized by contrasting colors creating the illusion of motion?
→ d. Motion illusion
• Motion illusions are visual illusions where contrasting colors and patterns cause the illusion of movement, even in static images.
Option Explanation
a. Theory of Reasoned Action This theory says behavior is determined by intentions, which are influenced by attitudes and subjective norms (what others expect of you). It’s not about denial or personal risk perception stages.
b. Stages of Change Theory (Transtheoretical Model) This involves stages like Precontemplation, Contemplation, Preparation, Action, Maintenance. Stage 2 here would be Contemplation, but it refers to thinking about behavior change, not denial of risk.
c. Theory of Planned Behaviour Builds on the Theory of Reasoned Action but adds perceived behavioral control. Again, this is about intentions, not risk denial stages.
d. Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM) Correct. This model describes how people move from unawareness to taking action.
• Stage 1: Unaware of issue • Stage 2: Aware but not personally engaged — “I know it exists, but it can’t happen to me.” ← O’Boy’s thinking. • Later stages: Deciding to act or not, acting, and maintaining behavior. So, O’Boy is at Stage 2 of the PAPM, because he knows about AIDS but denies personal vulnerability, which is a real-world barrier to prevention.
- Which type of illusion is characterized by contrasting colors creating the illusion of motion?
Option Explanation
a. The moving illusion Not a standard scientific term. A vague phrase that doesn’t describe a specific phenomenon.
b. The movement illusion Also not a standard term in psychology/visual sciences.
c. The speed illusion Refers to a real concept — where motion is perceived to be faster or slower due to background or context. But it doesn’t involve color contrast or still images appearing to move.
d. Motion illusion Correct. Motion illusions are optical illusions where static images seem to move, often due to color contrasts, patterns, and shapes that trick the brain (e.g., rotating snakes illusion or Akiyoshi Kitaoka’s illusions). These play on how the visual system processes contrast and edges.
So, motion illusion is the best fit — it’s a recognized term in visual perception psychology.
Perfect! Here’s a clear and detailed breakdown of the stages for each theory you asked about — so you can easily compare and remember them for your exam.
- Stages of Change Theory (Transtheoretical Model)
This model explains how people change a behavior over time.
Stage Explanation
1. Precontemplation Not aware of the problem or not ready to change. (“I don’t need to change.”)
2. Contemplation Aware there’s a problem and starting to think about change. (“Maybe I should change.”)
3. Preparation Getting ready to change soon — may start making small changes.
4. Action Actively making the change. (“I’ve started.”)
5. Maintenance Trying to keep the new behavior long-term.
6. (Relapse - optional stage) May go back to old behavior. Can return to earlier stages and try again.
- Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM)
This is about how people take action against health risks, especially when facing new health information (like diseases or screenings).
Stage Explanation
1. Unaware of the issue Person has never heard of the risk/problem.
2. Unengaged by the issue They know about it but don’t see it as personally relevant.
3. Deciding about acting They are considering whether to take action.
4. Decided not to act They choose not to act.
5. Decided to act They choose to take preventive action.
6. Acting Actually taking action (e.g., screening, vaccination).
7. Maintenance Continuing the behavior if it’s ongoing (e.g., regular checkups).
- Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)
TRA doesn’t have stages, but focuses on what influences a person’s decision to act:
• Attitude toward the behavior – Do I see this behavior as good or bad?
• Subjective norm – Do people important to me think I should do it?
• → These two factors form intention → which leads to action
There are no stages, but the idea is that if attitude and norms are strong enough, the person will intend to act and then follow through.
- Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
Also doesn’t have stages but builds on TRA by adding one more idea:
• Attitude toward the behavior
• Subjective norm
• Perceived behavioral control → Do I believe I’m capable of doing it?
Together, these three influence behavioral intention, which leads to actual behavior.
Quick Recap Chart
Model Stages or Components
Stages of Change Precontemplation → Contemplation → Preparation → Action → Maintenance (→ Relapse)
PAPM Unaware → Unengaged → Deciding → Decided Not to Act / Decided to Act → Acting → Maintenance
TRA Attitude + Subjective Norm → Intention → Behavior
TPB Attitude + Subjective Norm + Perceived Behavioral Control → Intention → Behavior
Would you like me to help you with:
• Mnemonics to remember the stages?
• Flashcards for each stage?
• MCQs for these specific stages only to reinforce them?
Let me know what format will help you memorize them best.
Excellent — practical examples will help you connect theory to real life and remember it better for your exam. Here’s a clear and relatable breakdown of each theory, concept, and its real-world example.
- Stages of Change Theory (Transtheoretical Model)
Stage Practical Example (Smoking Cessation)
Precontemplation Kwame smokes daily and doesn’t think it’s a problem.
Contemplation He begins to think smoking may be harmful after hearing a health talk.
Preparation He buys nicotine patches and reads about how to quit.
Action He stops smoking and starts using patches.
Maintenance He’s been smoke-free for 6 months and avoids triggers.
Relapse (optional) He smokes again under stress but decides to restart his quit plan.
Other examples:
• Weight loss journey
• Alcohol or drug recovery
• Adopting exercise routines
- Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM)
Stage Practical Example (Breast Cancer Screening – Mammogram)
Unaware Adjoa has never heard about mammograms.
Unengaged She hears about them but doesn’t think she needs it.
Deciding about acting She’s not sure if it’s necessary or safe.
Decided not to act She decides it’s not for her (maybe due to fear or misinformation).
Decided to act She finally decides to book a mammogram.
Acting She goes to the hospital and gets it done.
Maintenance She keeps up with regular screenings every few years.
Other examples:
• COVID-19 vaccination
• Condom use for STIs
• Regular BP checks
- Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)
Component Practical Example (Using a Mosquito Net)
Attitude toward the behavior “I think using a net will protect me from malaria.”
Subjective norm “My friends and family also use mosquito nets.”
Behavioral intention → behavior “I intend to use it every night, and I do.”
Other examples:
• Choosing to eat healthy
• Voting in elections
• Donating blood
- Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
Component Practical Example (Joining a Fitness Program)
Attitude toward the behavior “Exercise is good for my health.”
Subjective norm “My friends support and encourage me to exercise.”
Perceived behavioral control “I believe I can stick to the routine.”
→ Intention → behavior “I decide to join and actually start going.”
Other examples:
• Starting a small business
• Saving money
• Going back to school
Summary Table for Comparison:
Theory Main Focus Example Summary
Stages of Change Readiness to change Kwame trying to quit smoking
PAPM Awareness to action Adjoa deciding about mammogram
TRA Beliefs and social norms → behavior Using mosquito net because it’s seen as positive and common
TPB Adds perceived control to TRA Joining fitness program because of belief, support, and confidence
Would you like me to now turn these practical examples into MCQs or flashcards for memorization?
Or would you like Christian/religious examples added to each theory to make them more relatable to you?
Define the usefulness and main concepts behind these theories :
Sure! Here are the theory names:
1. Stages of Change Theory (Transtheoretical Model)
2. Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM)
3. Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)
4. Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
Perfect — here’s a brief summary of the importance and main concept behind each theory, so you understand why they’re taught and how they apply in real life or health psychology:
- Stages of Change Theory (Transtheoretical Model)
• Main Concept: Behavior change is a process that happens in stages — people don’t change overnight.
• Why it’s important:
• Helps health professionals identify where a person is on their journey (e.g., smoking, diet, exercise).
• Allows for tailored interventions based on stage — not everyone needs the same approach. - Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM)
• Main Concept: People move from being unaware of a health risk to taking action step by step.
• Why it’s important:
• Explains why some people don’t take preventive health actions (e.g., screening, vaccines).
• Useful for public health education and awareness campaigns — especially early stages of behavior adoption. - Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)
• Main Concept: A person’s behavior is determined by their intention, which is shaped by their attitudes and social influences (subjective norms).
• Why it’s important:
• Helps predict behavior in areas like sexual health, diet, smoking, etc.
• Highlights the power of belief systems and peer influence in health choices. - Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
• Main Concept: Builds on TRA by adding perceived behavioral control — whether a person feels capable of doing the behavior.
• Why it’s important:
• Acknowledges that even with positive attitude and support, a person needs to believe they can do it.
• Very useful in designing effective behavior change programs (e.g., physical activity, contraceptive use, etc.).
Recap Table:
Theory Main Concept Why It Matters
Stages of Change Behavior change happens in steps Helps tailor intervention to readiness level
PAPM From unawareness to action Explains why some people never act on health risks
TRA Intention is shaped by attitude + social norms Shows how beliefs and peer influence shape behavior
TPB Adds confidence/control to TRA Explains why people may still not act despite good intentions
Let me know if you want a quick mnemonic to help remember them or if you’d like examples related to Christian values or maternal and child health.
114.Acidophilic structures in the cell and extracellular matrix include …
I. Nuclei
II. Mitochondria
III. Ribosomes
IV. Collagen
a. II, III and IV only
b. I and III only
c. I, II and III only
d. II and IV only
115.The objectives of research ethics do NOT include…
a. informed consent.
b. protection of human participants.
c. soundness of analysis.
d. confidentiality.
116.Select the condition, which is NOT anatomical variation among the following.
a. Horseshoe kidney
b. Abdominal kidney
c. Atonic stomach
d. Hypotonic stomach
117.In an emergency situation, people are likely to help in the presence of others when …
a. the emergency is obvious.
b. travelling.
c. they are from different tribes.
d. people are a lot.
118.The health of an individual is influenced by several factors within and outside a person.
Which of the following is an external factor that could influence an individual’s health?
a. Behaviour
b. Knowledge
c. Sex
D. Care
Naming, classification and provision of other details of a characteristic of behaviour is a
___________ goal of Psychology.
a. Controlling
b. Prediction
c. Description
d. Explanation
120.Identify correctly the motivation theory that is based on the principle of homeostasis, the
tendency of the body to maintain a steady internal state:
a. McClelland’s Achievement Need theory.
b. Instinct theory.
c. Needs and Drive theory.
d. Arousal theory.
121.The first thing to establish in negligence is …
a. Damage.
b. Compensation.
c. A duty situation.
d. Breach.
122.The compound that you can smell on the breadth of a patient who isn’t obtaining enough
energy from carbohydrates is …
a. acetate.
b. acetone.
c. acetoacetate.
d. alcohol.
123.What would you need from me to feel okay doing this my way? This is an example of
”……………..” in assertiveness training.
a. arriving at a workable compromise
b. learning how to listen
c. avoiding manipulations
d. writing a script for change
124.I hate drinking alcohol; however I am always encouraging people to drink if they want to and
even go to the extent of buying those drinks. In light of this it can be said that _______________
has occurred.
a. Cognitive deviation
b. Cognitive delirium
c. Cognitive dissonance
d. Cognitive distortion
125.In the critical thinking topic, Dr. Anim did not give one of the following learning objectives:
that by the end of three hours, students should be able to …
a. Mention steps involved in the critical thinking process.
b. Define critical thinking.
c. Master critical thinking skills.
d. Question or assess information presented in any subject.
Here are the correct answers with explanations for each question:
- Acidophilic structures in the cell and extracellular matrix include…
✅ Answer: d. II and IV only
• Acidophilic (eosinophilic) structures stain pink/red with eosin. These structures are usually basic in nature.
• Mitochondria and Collagen fibers are acidophilic.
• Nuclei and Ribosomes are basophilic (they stain blue/purple with hematoxylin because they contain nucleic acids like DNA and RNA). - The objectives of research ethics do NOT include…
✅ Answer: c. soundness of analysis
• Soundness of analysis is a scientific objective, not specifically an ethical objective.
• Ethical objectives focus on:
• Informed consent
• Protection of participants
• Confidentiality - Select the condition, which is NOT an anatomical variation among the following.
✅ Answer: c. Atonic stomach
• Anatomical variations are natural structural differences, not pathological.
• Horseshoe kidney: kidneys fused at lower poles.
• Abdominal kidney: ectopic kidney.
• Hypotonic stomach is also a functional variant, not abnormal shape.
• But Atonic stomach indicates loss of muscle tone, a pathological condition, not a variation. - In an emergency situation, people are likely to help in the presence of others when…
✅ Answer: a. the emergency is obvious
• This relates to the Bystander Effect in psychology.
• People are more likely to help when it’s clear what’s happening and what to do.
• If not obvious, people wait for others to act. - Which of the following is an external factor that could influence an individual’s health?
✅ Answer: d. Care
• Care is an external factor (social support, access to health services).
• Behaviour, knowledge, and sex are internal/personal factors.
Would you like me to turn these into active recall flashcards or MCQs for practice?
Here are the correct answers with brief explanations for each question:
- Naming, classification and provision of other details of a characteristic of behaviour is a ___________ goal of Psychology.
✅ Answer: c. Description
• Description is the first goal of psychology. It involves observing and naming behaviors, collecting facts, and identifying patterns. - Identify correctly the motivation theory that is based on the principle of homeostasis, the tendency of the body to maintain a steady internal state:
✅ Answer: c. Needs and Drive theory
• Drive Theory suggests that biological needs create internal states of tension (drives) that motivate behavior to restore homeostasis. - The first thing to establish in negligence is …
✅ Answer: c. A duty situation
• The first legal element in a negligence claim is proving that a duty of care existed between the parties. - The compound that you can smell on the breath of a patient who isn’t obtaining enough energy from carbohydrates is …
✅ Answer: b. acetone
• Acetone is a ketone body formed during fat metabolism, common in starvation or uncontrolled diabetes (ketoacidosis). - “What would you need from me to feel okay doing this my way?” This is an example of __________ in assertiveness training.
✅ Answer: a. arriving at a workable compromise
• This phrase is part of a communication strategy to reach a mutual agreement while asserting your position respectfully. - I hate drinking alcohol; however, I always encourage others and even buy drinks for them. In light of this it can be said that _______________ has occurred.
✅ Answer: c. Cognitive dissonance
• Cognitive dissonance happens when a person’s actions conflict with their beliefs or attitudes, causing internal tension. - In the critical thinking topic, Dr. Anim did not give one of the following learning objectives:
✅ Answer: c. Master critical thinking skills
• “Mastering” is too ambitious for a typical introductory learning objective, unlike mentioning, defining, or questioning, which are more realistic outcomes.
Would you like these converted into a printable study sheet or practice quiz set?
126.Events which involve extra sensory perception and cannot be verified by a second or third
party is classified as …
a. Pseudo Psychology.
b. Para Psychology.
c. Para Normal Activity.
d. Pseudocyesis.
127.Yaw meets beautiful Adjoa at a party and asks her for her phone number. After he is given the
number, he keeps repeating it to himself until he saves it on his phone. Yaw is employing
_________ rehearsal.
a. Management
b. Confident
c. Elaborative
d. maintenance
128.A mixture of belief and emotion that predisposes a person to respond to other people, objects
and groups in a positive or negative way is known as _________.
a. Attrition
b. Attribute
c. Attention
d. Attitude
129.Goffman points out that how people treat us depends on all of the following EXCEPT …
a. How they think of us.
b. Our behaviour.
c. Their impressions of us.
d. Our private emotions.
130.What aspect of the child’s language is illustrated in the statement: ‘Mama eat rice’.
a. Babbling
b. Two- word utterance
c. Holophrastic speech
d. Telegraphic speech
131.The part of larger public health efforts that focus on the health and well- being of the
community as a whole defines community______ practice.
a. Development
b. Participation
c. Health
d. Nursing
132.The study approach of physiology that takes into consideration the purpose of a phenomenon
is …
a. teleological approach.
b. mechanistic approach.
c. philosophical approach.
d. existential approach.
According to Rogers, what causes congruence?
a. An inherited sense of dignity.
b. Unconditioned stimuli.
c. Conditional acceptance or affection.
d. Unconditional acceptance or affection.
135.Mallam Tutugyagu looks into Osei’s palms and tells him that he is introverted and that he will
become a very notable person in his profession. Mallam Tutugyagu is practicing …
a. Graphology.
b. Psychokinesis.
c. Palmistry.
d. Clairvoyance.
136.The assumption that behaviour is goal directed, and that actions are freely chosen to reach
the goal is the central theme of …
a. Stages of Change Theory.
b. The Theory of Planned Behaviour.
c. Self Regulation Theory.
d. The Theory of Reasoned Action.
137.A middle-aged man had episodes of transient ischemic attack and was rushed to the hospital.
The physician requested for the MRI scan of the man’s brain. The MRI scan of the brain is an
example of …
a. Radiological anatomy
b. Clinical anatomy
c. Comparative anatomy
d. Surface anatomy
138.The production of __________ is an example of the success of recombinant DNA Technology in
the medical field.
a. Insulin
b. Vaccines
c. Proteins
d. All the above options.
139.I remember when I won the 100-meter race at the Schools’ and Colleges’ sports festival when
I was in my final year in secondary school. I received a lot of cheers. It was a great moment
for me. This is an example of ______ memory?
a. Semantic
b. Procedural
c. Iconic
d. Episodic
Here are the correct answers for questions 126–132, with brief explanations to help you understand and remember them better:
- Events which involve extra sensory perception and cannot be verified by a second or third party is classified as …
✅ Answer: b. Para Psychology
• Parapsychology deals with psychic phenomena like ESP, telepathy, clairvoyance—unscientific but studied by some under psychology. - Yaw meets beautiful Adjoa at a party and asks her for her phone number. After he is given the number, he keeps repeating it to himself until he saves it on his phone. Yaw is employing __________ rehearsal.
✅ Answer: d. Maintenance
• Maintenance rehearsal involves repetition of information to keep it in short-term memory, unlike elaborative rehearsal, which links new info with existing knowledge. - A mixture of belief and emotion that predisposes a person to respond to other people, objects and groups in a positive or negative way is known as _________.
✅ Answer: d. Attitude
• Attitude includes our thoughts, feelings, and actions toward people or situations, shaped by experiences, beliefs, and emotions. - Goffman points out that how people treat us depends on all of the following EXCEPT …
✅ Answer: d. Our private emotions
• According to Erving Goffman’s Dramaturgical Theory, people react based on what they observe about us, not our hidden/internal feelings. - What aspect of the child’s language is illustrated in the statement: ‘Mama eat rice’.
✅ Answer: d. Telegraphic speech
• Telegraphic speech is a stage in child language development, where sentences omit less critical words but convey meaning (like a telegram). - The part of larger public health efforts that focus on the health and well-being of the community as a whole defines community ________ practice.
✅ Answer: d. Nursing
• Community nursing focuses on preventive care, education, and health promotion for populations rather than just individuals.
I doubt this is the answer
I’m thinking it’s community health so check. - The study approach of physiology that takes into consideration the purpose of a phenomenon is …
✅ Answer: a. Teleological approach
• Teleological approach explains why a process happens (its purpose), whereas mechanistic approach explains how it happens (the steps involved).
Would you like me to create more MCQs or a summary sheet with all the key concepts covered so far?
Sure! Here’s a clear explanation of all the possible answers for questions 127 and 130, so you can better understand why one is correct and the others are not.
- Yaw meets beautiful Adjoa at a party and asks her for her phone number. After he is given the number, he keeps repeating it to himself until he saves it on his phone. Yaw is employing __________ rehearsal.
a. Management
• This is not a type of rehearsal in memory processes. It generally refers to organizing or controlling something, not storing information.
b. Confident
• Not related to memory at all. “Confident” describes a personality trait or state of self-assurance—not a method for retaining information.
c. Elaborative
• Elaborative rehearsal involves linking new information with existing knowledge, like connecting the phone number to a birthday or familiar pattern. It’s deeper processing for long-term memory, but that’s not what Yaw is doing here.
d. Maintenance → Correct Answer
• Maintenance rehearsal is simple repetition to keep information active in short-term memory. Yaw keeps repeating the number until he stores it—classic maintenance rehearsal.
- What aspect of the child’s language is illustrated in the statement: ‘Mama eat rice’.
a. Babbling
• Babbling occurs before real words, usually between 4 to 9 months, and consists of sounds like “ba-ba,” “da-da.” It’s not actual speech with meaning yet, so “Mama eat rice” is beyond this stage.
b. Two-word utterance
• Two-word stage usually happens around 18–24 months, like “Mama eat” or “baby cry.” But “Mama eat rice” has three words, so it’s not just two-word utterance anymore.
c. Holophrastic speech
• In this stage, a child uses one word to represent a full idea (e.g., saying “Milk!” to mean “I want milk”). It comes before multi-word sentences. Again, “Mama eat rice” is beyond this stage.
d. Telegraphic speech → Correct Answer
• Telegraphic speech happens around 2–3 years, where children use short, essential words, like a telegram (e.g., “Mama eat rice,” “Daddy go work”). It’s grammatically incomplete but meaningful.
Would you like me to give examples or visuals for each speech stage or how to recognize them easily in children?
Here are the correct answers along with explanations for each question (134–139):
- According to Rogers, what causes congruence?
Correct answer: d. Unconditional acceptance or affection.
• Explanation:
Carl Rogers (Humanistic psychologist) believed that congruence—a state where your self-image matches your actual experience—is fostered by unconditional positive regard (love or acceptance without conditions). When individuals feel accepted regardless of their behavior, they are more likely to accept themselves and achieve personal growth.
• Other options:
• a. Inherited sense of dignity → Not part of Rogers’ theory.
• b. Unconditioned stimuli → A term from classical conditioning, not Rogers.
• c. Conditional acceptance or affection → Leads to incongruence, not congruence.
- Mallam Tutugyagu looks into Osei’s palms and tells him that he is introverted and that he will become a very notable person in his profession. Mallam Tutugyagu is practicing…
Correct answer: c. Palmistry.
• Explanation:
Palmistry is the practice of interpreting lines and shapes on a person’s palm to tell their personality or future. It’s a form of pseudoscience, not based on scientific evidence.
• Other options:
• a. Graphology → Analysis of handwriting.
• b. Psychokinesis → Ability to move objects with the mind.
• d. Clairvoyance → Claim of gaining information beyond normal sensory input.
- The assumption that behaviour is goal directed, and that actions are freely chosen to reach the goal is the central theme of…
Correct answer: d. The Theory of Reasoned Action.
• Explanation:
The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) proposes that people’s behavior is driven by their intention, which results from their attitude toward the behavior and subjective norms. It assumes free will and goal-directed behavior.
• Other options:
• a. Stages of Change Theory → Focuses on behavior change over time.
• b. Theory of Planned Behaviour → Adds perceived control to TRA.
• c. Self-Regulation Theory → Focuses on self-monitoring and adjusting behavior.
- A middle-aged man had episodes of transient ischemic attack and was rushed to the hospital. The physician requested for the MRI scan of the man’s brain. The MRI scan of the brain is an example of…
Correct answer: b. Clinical anatomy.
• Explanation:
Clinical anatomy is the practical application of anatomical knowledge in diagnosing and treating patients, like using an MRI to assess brain conditions.
• Other options:
• a. Radiological anatomy → Deals with imaging techniques, but clinical anatomy is the broader and more appropriate term here. CORRECT ANSWER
• c. Comparative anatomy → Study of similarities/differences between species.
• d. Surface anatomy → Study of external features.
- The production of __________ is an example of the success of recombinant DNA Technology in the medical field.
Correct answer: d. All the above options.
• Explanation:
• Insulin (human insulin via genetically engineered bacteria),
• Vaccines (e.g., hepatitis B vaccine),
• Proteins (e.g., growth hormones, clotting factors) — all are products of recombinant DNA technology. CONFIRM
- “I remember when I won the 100-meter race…” This is an example of ______ memory?
Correct answer: d. Episodic.
• Explanation:
Episodic memory is memory of specific events and experiences in your life, including time, place, and emotions attached.
• Other options:
• a. Semantic → Memory of facts and concepts (e.g., “Paris is the capital of France”).
• b. Procedural → Memory of how to do things (e.g., riding a bike).
• c. Iconic → Visual sensory memory that lasts only a few seconds.
Let me know if you’d like a summary list or visual flashcards for easy memorization!
More about Carl Roger’s theory
And Abraham Maslow theory apart from his theory of needs
Great! Here’s a deeper look into Carl Rogers’ theory and Abraham Maslow’s contributions (beyond just his hierarchy of needs):
Carl Rogers’ Theory – Humanistic Approach (Person-Centered Theory)
Main Concept:
Rogers believed that every individual has a natural drive toward growth and fulfillment, called self-actualization. He emphasized personal experience, subjective perception, and the importance of the self-concept.
Key Concepts:
1. Self-Concept:
• How you view yourself (who you are, how you think others see you).
• Composed of:
• Real self (who you truly are)
• Ideal self (who you want to be)
2. Congruence vs Incongruence:
• Congruence = When real self and ideal self match closely.
• Incongruence = Mismatch between real and ideal self, leading to anxiety or low self-esteem.
3. Unconditional Positive Regard:
• Acceptance and love without conditions.
• Important for healthy self-concept and congruence.
4. Conditions of Worth:
• When people feel accepted only if they meet certain conditions (e.g., “You’re good only if you score high”), they develop incongruence.
5. Fully Functioning Person:
• Open to experience, lives in the moment, trusts own decisions, and continues personal growth.
Why It’s Important:
• Shifts psychology from focusing on illness to potential, growth, and well-being.
• Emphasizes empathy and genuine human interaction (widely used in counseling and therapy today).
Abraham Maslow – Beyond Hierarchy of Needs
Though he is most known for the Hierarchy of Needs, Maslow contributed more to Humanistic Psychology.
Key Ideas (Beyond the Pyramid):
1. Self-Actualization in Depth:
• Not just a level to reach, but a way of life—being creative, authentic, spontaneous, and purpose-driven.
• Self-actualized people are:
• Problem-centered, not self-centered
• Realistic and ethical
• Accept themselves and others
• Have peak experiences (deep spiritual/joyful moments)
2. Peak Experiences:
• Moments of extreme joy, creativity, inspiration, or connection.
• These moments give life deep meaning and help in spiritual growth.
3. Metamotivation:
• Motivation beyond basic needs.
• Drives like truth, beauty, justice, wholeness, meaning (called B-values).
• Different from deficiency needs (food, safety, love, etc.).
4. Transcendence (Later Addition to His Theory):
• Going beyond personal self-actualization to serve others or connect with something greater (e.g., God, nature, humanity).
Why It’s Important:
• Maslow emphasized positive human potential, not pathology.
• His ideas shaped positive psychology, education, counseling, and even leadership training.
Summary Table:
Aspect Carl Rogers Abraham Maslow
Key Focus Self-concept, congruence, growth Needs hierarchy, self-actualization
Main Drive
In the 1950 Willowbrook Hepatitis Study…
a. new admissions were closed.
b. children were not deliberately exposed to hepatitis viruses.
c. researchers obtained consent from the parents.
d. approval was given by the committee in charge.
212.The yellow bile fluid in the theory of body fluid by Hippocrates originates from …
a. spleen.
b. liver.
c. heart.
d. brain.
213.The largest lymphatic vessels are the …
a. collecting duct
b. lymphatic trunk
c. lymphatic capillaries
d. collecting vessels
214.The poem “Go and meet your people, live and stay with them, love them, work with them.
Begin with what they have, plan and develop from what they know, and in the end, when the
work is over, they will say: “we did it ourselves” is accredited to, …
a. Froid.
b. Lao Tzu.
c. Oakley.
d. Denn
Here are the correct answers and brief explanations for each:
- In the 1950 Willowbrook Hepatitis Study…
Correct answer: c. researchers obtained consent from the parents.
• In the controversial Willowbrook study, researchers did obtain consent from the parents, but it was criticized for being unethical because the consent was often coerced, and children were deliberately infected with hepatitis.
• Option a is false – new admissions were not closed.
• Option b is false – children were deliberately exposed.
• Option d – there’s no clear evidence that proper ethical committee approval was in place as per modern standards.
- The yellow bile fluid in the theory of body fluid by Hippocrates originates from…
Correct answer: b. liver
• According to the four humors theory:
• Blood – Heart
• Phlegm – Brain/Lungs
• Black bile – Spleen
• Yellow bile – Liver
Personality Type,Key Traits,Associated Humor,Organ
Choleric,Bold, leader, goal-driven, hot-tempered,Yellow Bile,Liver
Sanguine,Cheerful, sociable, lively, talkative,Blood,Heart
Melancholic,Thoughtful, sensitive, perfectionist,Black Bile,Spleen
Phlegmatic,Calm, dependable, peaceful, quiet,Phlegm,Brain/Lungs
- The largest lymphatic vessels are the…
Correct answer: a. collecting duct (lymphatic ducts)
• The thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct are the largest lymphatic vessels.
• Other options:
• Lymphatic trunks – medium-sized vessels before ducts.
• Capillaries and collecting vessels are smaller structures.
- The poem “Go and meet your people… they will say: ‘we did it ourselves’” is accredited to…
Correct answer: b. Lao Tzu
• This quote reflects Lao Tzu’s leadership philosophy, which emphasizes servant leadership, community empowerment, and starting with what the people have to achieve sustainable development.
Would you like a summarized cheat sheet for quick review?
Indicate the option that is NOT a physical stress reduction method.
a. Learning
b. Gardening
c. Skipping
d. Walking
205.Which of the following bony surface marking is used for articulation?
a. Crest
b. Spine
c. Facet
d. Tuberosity
206.Which of the following rights is NOT provided for under the Patients Charter?
a. The right of a patient to determine which ward to be placed at.
b. The right of a patient to know of alternate treatments for their medical condition.
c. The right of a patient to be involved in decisions on their treatment, where applicable.
d. The right of a patient to be informed of alternate facilities offering similar health care
services.
207.Which of the following is NOT an example of a duty situation in negligence?
a. Doctor – patient.
b. Radiologist – patient.
c. Lecturer – student.
d. Driver – student.
208.Agbaa Kakalika likes “abonsam taawa”. Its primary effect is to increase dopamine and
norepinephrine levels in the brain. “Abonsam taawa” is …
a. Heroin.
b. Marijuana.
c. Cocaine.
d. Ecstasy.
209.I take a keen interest in soccer. In the course of a match, all my attention is on the game. My
team however lost 4-1 to the opposing team. After the game, I envision how my team won the
match 3-0. This is an example of …
a. Flowing Consciousness.
b. Trance.
c. Directed Consciousness.
d. Daydreaming.
210.Which gland in your body starts the stress response?
a. Lymph gland
b. All of the the other options
c. Thyroid gland
d. Pituitary gland
197.In what year was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was made?
a. 1941
b. 1984
c. 1914
d. 1948
198.Agya Koo Nimo, a celebrated musician and promoter of traditional folklore music recently
gave a talk at UCC. After the talk, people seated at the front rose to their feet and gave a
thunderous applause; soon the whole auditorium was giving him a standing ovation. This is
an example of …
a. Control.
b. Compliance.
c. Conformity.
d. Communality.
199.When Burger Cooper Lee set of to visit his girlfriend he met an old school mate who had
become a neurosurgeon, as he waved goodbye to his friend he kept thinking about how good
it would feel to be a doctor and also how he was going to enjoy his day with his girlfriend. He
kept thinking about these throughout his journey. This demonstrates …
a. Divided Consciousness.
b. Daydreaming.
c. Flowing Consciousness.
d. Directed Consciousness.
200.Which of following persons do the Directive Principles of State Policy NOT apply to?
a. Political Parties.
b. Development partners.
c. Judiciary.
d. Cabinet.
201.One advantage of a person who uses the passive style of interpersonal relationship is that…..
a. people do not push the passive person around.
b. he rarely experience direct rejection.
c. he steps on people without regard for their feelings.
d. he is taken advantage of.
202.The processes involved in establishing contact with the community are described as the
community _________ processes.
a. Entry
b. Participatory
c. Dialogue
d. Negotiation
203.When we do an intellectual argument, we are best doing one of the following:
a. Analysing
b. Evaluating
c. Applying
d. Reasoning
Explain the possible answers too
Here’s a full breakdown of the questions and possible answers with explanations for each choice:
- Indicate the option that is NOT a physical stress reduction method.
Correct answer: a. Learning
• Learning is a cognitive activity, not a physical stress-reduction technique.
• Gardening, Skipping, Walking all involve physical movement that helps relieve stress physically.
- Which of the following bony surface markings is used for articulation?
Correct answer: c. Facet
• Facet: A smooth, flat surface where bones meet (articulate), e.g., vertebrae.
• Crest: A prominent ridge (muscle attachment).
• Spine: A sharp projection (muscle/ligament attachment).
• Tuberosity: A roughened area for muscle attachment.
- Which of the following rights is NOT provided for under the Patients Charter?
Correct answer: a. The right of a patient to determine which ward to be placed at.
• Patients don’t have the right to choose their ward, but they do have rights to information and involvement in care decisions (b, c, d).
- Which of the following is NOT an example of a duty situation in negligence?
Correct answer: c. Lecturer – student. WRONG. It’s driver student
• Doctor-patient, Radiologist-patient, Driver-student have legal duty of care.
• A lecturer is not generally legally responsible for a student’s safety in the same direct care context.
- “Abonsam taawa”… increases dopamine and norepinephrine.
Correct answer: c. Cocaine
• Cocaine is a stimulant that boosts dopamine and norepinephrine levels, leading to alertness and euphoria.
• Heroin (a depressant), Marijuana (cannabinoid), Ecstasy (also affects serotonin more).
- I envision how my team won after losing – this is an example of …
Correct answer: d. Daydreaming
• Daydreaming is a form of spontaneous, internal, imaginary thinking detached from present reality.
- Which gland starts the stress response?
Correct answer: d. Pituitary gland
• The hypothalamus signals the pituitary gland, which releases hormones that activate adrenal glands.
• Thyroid gland regulates metabolism, not stress initiation.
• Lymph glands handle immune function.
- In what year was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights made?
Correct answer: d. 1948
- Standing ovation – this is an example of …
Correct answer: c. Conformity
• Conformity is copying others’ behavior to fit in (e.g., others clapping, so you clap too).
• Compliance is following direct requests.
• Control and communality are less relevant here.
- Thinking about doctorhood and girlfriend during journey – demonstrates …
Correct answer: c. Flowing Consciousness (CONFIRM IT)
• Flowing consciousness is a stream of thoughts moving fluidly from one topic to another.
• Directed consciousness is focused attention on one thing.
• Divided consciousness means split attention (e.g., multitasking).
- Directive Principles of State Policy do NOT apply to:
Correct answer: b. Development partners
• These principles guide state institutions, not external partners. They apply to cabinet, judiciary, and political parties.
- Advantage of passive interpersonal style is…
Correct answer: b. He rarely experiences direct rejection
• Passive people avoid conflict, so others may not confront them directly (but this is not always healthy).
• Option d is a disadvantage.
• Option a is incorrect — passive people can be pushed around.
- Processes in establishing contact with the community are called…
Correct answer: a. Entry
• Community entry is the initial step in engaging a community — introducing yourself, building rapport.
- In intellectual argument, we are best doing one of the following:
Correct answer: d. Reasoning
• Reasoning means constructing and analyzing logical arguments, which is central to intellectual discourse.
• Analyzing and Evaluating are part of reasoning but not the core.
• Applying is more about using knowledge than arguing.
How to know which bony surface marking is used for:
Articulation, Attachment, or Other Purposes
You can categorize bony markings based on their function:
Function Surface Marking Term Example Tip to Remember
Articulation (joint formation) Facet, Condyle, Head, Trochlea Facet of vertebrae, Head of femur Smooth, rounded areas that form joints.
Muscle/Ligament/Tendon attachment Crest, Spine, Tuberosity, Tubercle, Line, Epicondyle Tibial tuberosity, Iliac crest Usually raised, rough areas where tendons attach.
Passage of nerves/vessels Foramen, Fissure, Canal, Groove, Notch Foramen magnum, Optic canal Openings or depressions. Think of them as “tunnels.”
Depressions or Cavities Fossa, Sulcus Olecranon fossa, Intertubercular sulcus Shallow areas, often accommodate structures.
So just remember:
• Smooth and round = articulation
• Rough and raised = attachment
• Holes and grooves = passage of vessels/nerves
Sure! Here’s a quick summary of marijuana and its effects:
Marijuana (Cannabis) Summary:
• Contains cannabinoids — mainly THC (causes the “high”) and CBD (calming, non-psychoactive).
THC Effects:
• Alters mood and perception
• Causes relaxation or anxiety
• Impairs memory and coordination
• Increases appetite
• Can cause red eyes and dry mouth
CBD Effects:
• Reduces pain, anxiety, and inflammation
• No “high” feeling
Let me know if you want this in flashcard form too!
Which type of illusion uses colors to trick the eye?
a. The moving illusion
b. The melting illusion
c. The molding illusion
d. The watercolor illusion.
191.They say humans could die from exposure to mosquito sprays. Is that really true? How could
we check on that point? In acquiring universal intellectual standards, this is a question of…
a. Clarity
b. Precision
c. Accuracy
d. Relevance
192.Which of the following is an example of the Piagetian term conservation?
a. Cynthia understands that three oranges represent a different quantity than four apples.
b. Abigail understands her brother is trying to fool her by giving her taller glass of Alvaro
and that his shorter, wider glass actually has more.
c. Janet is looking at a couple of different possibilities for how to fix her broken chair.
d. Dorothy mentally retraces the steps she took to solve the maths problem.
193.The following are negative faculties of the mind EXCEPT …
a. Prejudice
b. Suspicion
c. Disbelief
d. Judging
194.According to the ________, before people take action they must first believe that the relative
benefits of the precaution outweighs its cost, and that people who do not act at one point in
time may act at another time because variables that influence action fluctuate.
a. Precaution Adoption Process Model
b. Health Belief Model
c. Theory of Reasoned Action
d. Self Regulation Theory
195.Identify the two theories of mind as developed by Sigmund Freud
a. Structural and Topographic
b. Conscious and Unconscious
c. Sensorimotor and Formal
d. Concrete operations and Preoperational
196.The father of microscopy is …
a. Robert Hook
b. Carl Zeiss
c. Antony van Leeuwenhoek
d. Zacharrias Janssen
Sure! Here’s a detailed explanation of the other possible answers for each question you asked:
- Identify the two theories of mind developed by Sigmund Freud
Correct: a. Structural and Topographic
Other options:
• b. Conscious and Unconscious → This is partially correct, but “conscious and unconscious” are components of the Topographic Theory, not a full theory on their own.
• c. Sensorimotor and Formal → These are Piaget’s cognitive development stages, not Freud’s.
• d. Concrete operations and Preoperational → Again, these are also Piaget’s stages, not related to Freud.
- The following are negative faculties of the mind EXCEPT:
Correct: d. Judging
Other options:
• a. Prejudice → This is a negative bias that distorts fair judgment.
• b. Suspicion → While sometimes useful, it often implies distrust or negativity without evidence.
• c. Disbelief → Persistent disbelief, especially in helpful or rational ideas, can block learning or openness.
• d. Judging → This is not necessarily negative. It’s a neutral mental activity and can be used positively for decision-making or reasoning.
- “…Is that really true? How could we check on that point?” — This is a question of:
Correct: c. Accuracy
Other options:
• a. Clarity → This refers to how clearly an idea is stated, not whether it is true or correct.
• b. Precision → This focuses on specific details or exactness, not truthfulness.
• d. Relevance → This asks how related an idea is to the topic, not whether it’s true.
- Which type of illusion uses colors to trick the eye?
Correct: d. The watercolor illusion
Other options:
• a. The moving illusion → These illusions trick the eye into perceiving motion when nothing is moving; usually based on patterns, not colors specifically.
• b. The melting illusion → Not a standard term in optical illusions; might be a misdirect or a fabricated option.
• c. The molding illusion → Also not a recognized type of visual illusion in optical studies.
Would you like me to continue with others in this format?
Here are the correct answers with brief explanations:
- Which type of illusion uses colors to trick the eye?
→ d. The watercolor illusion
• The watercolor illusion uses colored lines and shading to create the effect of a colored area, tricking the eye into seeing color spread where it doesn’t actually exist. - They say humans could die from exposure to mosquito sprays. Is that really true? How could we check on that point? In acquiring universal intellectual standards, this is a question of…
→ c. Accuracy
• Accuracy refers to whether something is true or correct. This question is about checking if a statement is factually accurate. - Which of the following is an example of the Piagetian term conservation?
→ b. Abigail understands her brother is trying to fool her by giving her taller glass of Alvaro and that his shorter, wider glass actually has more.
• Conservation in Piaget’s theory is understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance. - The following are negative faculties of the mind EXCEPT …
→ d. Judging
• While prejudice, suspicion, and disbelief are generally negative or limiting, judging (in the context of critical thinking) can be a neutral or even positive evaluative process. - According to the ________, before people take action they must first believe that the relative benefits of the precaution outweigh its cost, and that people who do not act at one point in time may act at another time because variables that influence action fluctuate.
→ a. Precaution Adoption Process Model
• This model explains how people decide to adopt a new health behavior, emphasizing that people go through stages and may delay action depending on perceived risks and benefits. - Identify the two theories of mind as developed by Sigmund Freud
→ a. Structural and Topographic
• Structural theory: id, ego, superego
• Topographic theory: conscious, preconscious, unconscious - The father of microscopy is …
→ c. Antony van Leeuwenhoek
• He is known for making powerful microscopes and being the first to observe microorganisms.
Would you like these in a printable format or quiz-style revision sheet?
How do illusions form?
What is an illusion in psychology with an example?
• An illusion happens when information from real stimuli is misinterpreted, causing a false perception of it.
• Visual illusions, for example, can happen either as a result of the way light moves and bends or as the result of the way the brain perceives what the eye is seeing.
• A common example is how a pencil appears to be bent when it is placed in a glass of water.
Perceptual misconstruction is responsible for many illusions. In an illusion, length, position, motion, curvature, or direction is consis- tently misjudged.
Notice that illusions are distorted perceptions of stimuli that actually exist. In a hallucination, people perceive objects or events that have no external reality
Moment by moment, our perceptions are typically constructed in both bottom-up and top-down fashion.
State the types of illusions
State the causes of illusions
What are the types of illusions?
• Illusions can be visual, auditory, or tactile.
• They can also involve other senses such as taste or smell.
• Visual illusions include optical illusions as well as cognitive illusions, in which the eye sees correctly but the brain misinterprets or adds information.
• Causes of Illusion?
• Many common visual illusions are perceptual: they result from the brain’s processing of ambiguous or unusual information.
• Other illusions result from the aftereffects of sensory stimulation or from conflicting sensory information.
• Still, others are associated with psychiatric and medical causes.
State the types of optical illusions
Literal optical illusions
Physiological optical illusions
Pathological visual illusions
Perfect! Here’s a clear breakdown of the main types of optical illusions and their subtypes (with examples) — to help you study and remember better:
- Literal Optical Illusions
• Definition: Images that are different from the objects that create them.
• Subtypes:
• Double images / Ambiguous images (e.g., Old woman or young lady picture)
• Hidden images (e.g., animal hidden in tree branches)
• Trompe-l’œil (trick of the eye art) – 3D-looking art on flat surfaces - Physiological Optical Illusions
• Definition: Caused by overstimulation of the eye or brain’s visual pathways (light, color, movement).
• Subtypes:
• Motion illusions → e.g., Rotating snakes, peripheral drift
• Afterimages → Seeing a ghost image after staring at a bright light
• Grid illusions → e.g., Hermann grid (dots appear at intersections)
• Brightness and color contrast illusions → overstimulation of color/brightness detectors - Cognitive (Psychological) Illusions
• Definition: Your brain makes incorrect assumptions or interpretations.
• Subtypes:
• Geometrical illusions
• Müller-Lyer illusion (arrows make lines look longer/shorter)
• Ponzo illusion (parallel lines + perspective trick the eye)
• Zöllner illusion
• Ambiguous illusions → Old woman/young girl, Necker cube
• Paradox illusions → Penrose triangle, impossible staircase
• Fictional illusions → Seeing things that are not there (rare, close to hallucination) - Pathological Visual Illusions (Clinical/Referred by medical professionals)
• Caused by brain injury, migraine, neurological disorders, or drug use.
• Not the usual optical illusions but distortions due to pathology.
• E.g., seeing distorted shapes, movement, colors during a migraine aura.
Summary Table (Quick Reference):
Main Type Subtypes Examples
Literal Optical Illusions Ambiguous images, Hidden images, Trompe-l’œil Old/young woman, art illusions
Physiological Illusions Motion illusions, Afterimages, Grids, Color contrast Rotating snakes, Hermann grid
Cognitive Illusions Geometrical, Ambiguous, Paradox, Fictional Müller-Lyer, Ponzo, Necker cube, Penrose
Pathological Illusions Distortions from medical conditions Migraine aura distortions, hallucinations
Would you like me to turn this into a study flashcard format or PDF for easier review?
What are the elements of thought
Go back to see premise(claim in support of the argument ) and conclusion of claim in an argument
Note that checklist for reasoning can be gotten from the elements of thought
The elements of thought are things that help you know how to think properly
- Purpose → What am I trying to accomplish?
- Question at Issue → What is the problem or question I’m trying to answer?
- Assumptions → What am I taking for granted? What beliefs am I basing this on?
- Information → What facts, data, or experiences do I already have or need to gather?
- Concepts → What key ideas, principles, or theories am I using to understand this?
- Point of View → What perspectives am I looking at this from? Are there others I should consider?
- Inferences or Interpretations → What conclusions am I drawing from the information?
- Implications or Consequences → What will happen as a result of this thinking or decision?
So let’s say you have something you want to think about.
Example is : How do I lose weight?
Purpose: why do I want to lose weight
Question or Problem: what will happen if I don’t lose weight
Assumption:what am I assuming is the best way to lose weight
Information: what information do I have about losing weight
Concepts: what theories I’m using to understand how to lose weight
Point of view: which different perspectives on how to lose weight have I looked at
Inferences or interpretations: what conclusions can I draw about losing weight
Implications or consequences: what will happen if I lose weight
Checklist for reasoning:
All reasoning is done for a purpose or has a purpose
All reasoning seeks to solve a problem or answer a question at issue
All reasoning is based on assumption
All reasoning is expressed through and shaped by concepts
All reasoning is done from some point of view
All reasoning is based on information
All reasoning contains inferences from which we draw conclusions
All reasoning leads somewhere or has implications or consequences
According to the types of egocentrism, it is true because I believe it is what type of egocentrism?
It is true because we believe it is what type of egocentrism?
It is true because I want to believe it is what type of egocentrism?
It is true because I have always believed it?
It is true because it is in my selfish interest to believe it?
There is problem with egocentric thinking.
• What is egocentric thinking?
• Examples:
- It’s true because I believe it. Innate egocentricism.
- It’s true because we believe it. Innate sociocentricism.
- It’s true because I want to believe it. Innate wish fulfilment.
- It is true because I have always believed it: Innate self-validation.
- It is true because it is in my selfish interest to believe it: innate selfishness.
What are universal intellectual standards?
State them
They’re the standards used to determine if a reasoning or thinking is sound or not while elements of thought help you know how to think about an issue properly
Clarity,accuracy,precision,logic,relevance,breadth,depth,fairness,significance
Universal intellectual standards
• Clarity:
- Could you elaborate further?
- Could you give me an example?
- Could you illustrate what you mean?
• Accuracy:
- How could we check on this?
- How could we find out if this is true? How could we verify or test,
• Precision:
- Could you be more specific?
- Could you give me more details?
- Could you be more exact?
• Relevance:
- How does that relate to the problem?
- How does that bear on the question?
- How does that help us with the issue?
• Depth:(how hard it’ll be)
- What factors make this a difficult problem?
- What are some of the complexities of this question?
- What are some of the difficulties we need to deal with?
Universal intellectual standards, con’d
• Breadth:(different perspectives)
- Do we need to look at this from another perspective?
- Do we need to consider another pint of view?
- Do we need to look at this in other ways?
• Logic:
- Does all this make sense together
- Does your first paragraph fit in with the last?
- Does what you say follow from the evidence?
• Significance:
- Is this the most important problem to consider?
— Is this the central idea to focus on?
- Which of these facts are most important?
• Fairness:
- Do I have any vested interest in this issue?
- Am I sympathetically representing the viewpoints of others?
State the intellectual traits(characteristics of a well developed thinker)
or virtues that we develop into as we apply the elements of thought to the universal intellectual standards
Intellectual humility versus intellectual arrogance.
- Intellectual courage versus intellectual cowardice.
- Intellectual empathy versus intellectual narrow-mindedness
- Intellectual autonomy versus intellectual conformity.
- Intellectual integrity versus intellectual hypocrisy.
- Intellectual perseverance versus intellectual laziness.
- Confidence in reason versus intellectual unfairness.
Fair mindedness
Intellectual humility: realizing that you don’t know everything and your knowledge is limited. Don’t claim more than you know
Intellectual courage: have the boldness to stand up to false ideas instead of passively accepting what is the norm even though it’s wrong. Be true to your own thinking when everyone else is accepting the wrong thing as the norm
Intellectual empathy; imaginatively put yourself in the shoes or perspective of the person with another view so that you can genuinely understand them
Intellectual autonomy(opposite is intellectual conformity) : learn to think for yourself and don’t conform to everyone’s ideas just because it’s their ideas. You should be able to rationally analyze ideas and believe when it’s rational to believe or conform when it’s rational to conform
intellectual integrity:Intellectual Integrity means being honest with yourself in your thinking. It means applying the same high standards to your own ideas as you do to others. You practice what you preach and admit when your thoughts or actions are inconsistent OR Intellectual Integrity means holding yourself to the same standards you expect from others and admitting inconsistencies.
Absolutely! Here’s a simple and easy-to-remember breakdown of each intellectual trait and its opposite:
- Intellectual Humility vs Intellectual Arrogance
• Humility: I know I don’t know everything. I’m open to learning from others.
• Arrogance: I think I already know it all and don’t need to listen to others. - Intellectual Courage vs Intellectual Cowardice
• Courage: I speak the truth and question ideas, even if it’s uncomfortable.
• Cowardice: I avoid questioning ideas or speaking up because I’m afraid of what others might say. - Intellectual Empathy vs Intellectual Narrow-mindedness
• Empathy: I try to understand how others think and feel, even if I disagree.
• Narrow-mindedness: I only care about my view and ignore how others see things. - Intellectual Autonomy vs Intellectual Conformity
• Autonomy: I think for myself and make my own judgments.
• Conformity: I just copy what others say or think without questioning it. - Intellectual Integrity vs Intellectual Hypocrisy
• Integrity: I hold myself to the same standards I expect from others.
• Hypocrisy: I criticize others but don’t apply the same rules to myself. - Intellectual Perseverance vs Intellectual Laziness
• Perseverance: I keep thinking through hard problems, even when it’s tough.
• Laziness: I give up easily or don’t bother thinking deeply. - Confidence in Reason vs Intellectual Unfairness
• Confidence in Reason: I believe good thinking and logic can lead to the best answers.
• Unfairness: I twist reasoning to favor myself or others unfairly. - Fair-mindedness
• Fair-mindedness: I treat all viewpoints with equal respect and judge them fairly — even if I don’t like them.
Let me know if you want a short mnemonic or analogy to remember these traits too.
State the 6 stages of critical thinking development
6.Master Thinker (Good habits of thought are becoming second nature) you use critical thinking effortlessly and provide clarity
Advanced Thinker (We advance in keeping with our practice) you apply critical thinking consistently
Practicing Thinker (We recognize the need for regular practice) you’re improving over here. So you recognize and correct flaws in reasoning
Beginning Thinker (We try to improve but without regular practice) you’re developing effort here. You apply critical thinking strategies but not consistently
Challenged Thinker (We are faced with significant problems in our thinking) you’re aware of your flaws here. You notice these things but struggle to correct them t them. You begin to question sources of info.
Unreflective Thinker (We are unaware of significant problems in our thinking. You’re unaware here. You lack awareness of thinking flaws and make decisions based on emotions
• Argument defined:
as an attempt to support a claim or assertion by providing a reason or reasons for accepting
The claim that is supported is called the conclusion of the argument, and the claim or claims that provide the support are called the premises.
The premises specify the reason or reasons for accepting the conclusion.
• When we offer an argument, we are reasoning:
an argument is not an attempt to persuade, but an attempt to prove or establish or support some claim.
• The proper definition of an argument is that it is two or more claims, one of which the conclusion, is supposed to follow from or be supported by the rest.
• An attempt to persuade is an attempt to win someone to your point of view.
of 42 rd “therefore” is a conclusion indicator.
• Other fairly reliable conclusion- indicating words and phrases include
• 1. it follows that,
• 2. we may conclude that….
• 3. this serves to show that…
• 4. thus…
• 5. hence,
• 6. Accordingly,
• 7. consequently,
• 8. sO,..
• An argument, then, always has a conclusion.
• It also always has at least one premise.
• Premises support the conclusion, and if you do not have support, you do not have an argument.
• Premise indicators include:
- since
- for
— Because
— In view of
— This is implied by
- Given
e.g. it is risky to drive above 50 km/h in town, since the police is always around to check.
Explain the four perceptions in the health belief model that combine to predict health related behavior
The Health Belief Model (Becker & Rosenstock, 1988)
Includes four beliefs or perception that should combine to predict health related behaviour
• perceived susceptibility to disease
• perceived severity of disease or disability
• perceived benefits of health enhancing behaviours
• perceived barriers to health enhancing behaviours
Explain the theory of reasoned action
THEORIES OF HEALTH PROTECTIVE
BEHAVIOURS
• The Health Belief Model
• The Theory of Reasoned Action
• The Theory of Planned Behaviour
• Self Regulation Theory
• Stages of Change Theory
• The Precaution Adoption Process Model
Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen &
Fishbein, 1980)
Assumes that:
*People are quite reasonable and make systematic use of information when deciding how to behave
- They consider the implications of their actions before deciding to engage or not to engage in a given behaviour
Theory of Reasoned Action cont’
The theory further assumes that
behaviour is directed toward a goal or outcome; and that people freely choose those actions that they believe will move them in the direction of the goal
• The immediate determinant of behaviour is the intention to act or not to act.
This is shaped by two factors:
• One’s attitude toward the behaviour (individual beliefs)
• One’s subjective norm or social influence (what you think other people expect you to do)
Perfect — you’re already grasping the concept really well! Let me explain it clearly and step by step using the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA):
Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA): Simple Breakdown
It says that what you do (your behavior) is mostly driven by your intention to do it.
But what shapes that intention?
Two main things:
- Attitude toward the behavior
• This is what you personally believe about the behavior.
• If you believe a behavior is beneficial, easy, and good, you’ll likely want to do it.
• Example: “I believe exercising daily will help me lose weight and feel better.” - Subjective norm (social influence)
• This is what you think others expect of you, or what people around you believe.
• If people you respect (like your parents, friends, community) expect you to behave a certain way, that affects your intention.
• Example: “My friends will respect me more if I go to the gym regularly.”
Putting it all together:
• Your belief (attitude) + What others think (subjective norm) → shape your intention → which leads to your behavior.
Health Example (Birth Control):
• Attitude: You believe birth control helps you plan your life and stay healthy.
• Subjective norm: But your society or family thinks it’s bad or shameful.
• Even if your attitude is positive, if the social pressure is strong, it might weaken your intention to use it, and affect your behavior.(relative importance of your attitude and then the social influence. The one that wins is what will drive your intention to either do something or not do it. Then your intention will decide your behavior.
In summary (just like you said):
Beliefs (yours and society’s) → Attitudes and social norms → Intention → Behavior
No. These arrows aren’t accurate for me. It’s more of you’re in between your beliefs and society’s beliefs or norm. They drive your intentions. So depending on which belief you choose(either yours or society’s), you’ll be in between trying to figure out which you should pick. Whichever one you decide to pick, it will lead to you getting an intention. Whether you’ll think of going ahead with doing something or not. This will now lead to your behavior. Whether you actually end up doing the thing or not.
Theory of planned behavior is an extension of theory of reasoned action.
What is theory of planned behavior
According to this theory, Predictions of behaviour can be made from knowledge of what three things?
Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen,
1985, 1988, 1991)
This is an extension of the theory of reasoned action.
The more resources and opportunities people believe they have, the stronger are their beliefs that they can control their behaviour.
Theory of Planned Behaviour cont’
Predictions of behaviour can be made from knowledge of
• people’s attitude towards the behaviour
• their subjective norm
• their perceived behavioural control
So in theory of reasoned action, behaviour was influenced by your intention which was influenced by your beliefs or that of your society’s.
But in theory of planned action, your behavior is still influenced or shaped by your intention but this time your intention is influenced not just by your beliefs (or attitude towards the behavior. Do you think the behavior is good or bad? ) or that of society’s(Your subjective norm→ Do you feel pressure from others to do it or not do it? ) but also by Your perceived behavioral control (→ Do you feel capable of doing it?,→ Do you have the resources, time, money, confidence, etc. to do it?)
Perceived behavioral control” — how much control you think you have over doing the behavior.
Because even if you have a good attitude and no social pressure, if you feel you can’t do it, you probably won’t.
Example – Eating Healthy Food:
• Attitude: You believe it’s good to eat healthy.
• Subjective norm: Your friends support it.
• Perceived control: But you think healthy food is too expensive, or you don’t have time to cook.
→ So even though you want to eat healthy, you may not — because you don’t feel in control.
Who brought about the self regulation theory?
This theory stresses the interaction of what three things?
What is self efficacy?
State and explain four things that affect self efficacy
What is reciprocal determinism
Self-Regulation Theory (Bandura, 1986)
Stresses the interaction of:
1.Behaviour
2.Environment
3.Person factors:- cognition.
Self Efficacy- “people’s beliefs about their capabilities to exercise control over events that affect their lives.
Bandura refers to this triadic model of the behavior, environment and person factors as Reciprocal
Determinism
Self efficacy: “people’s beliefs about their capabilities to exercise control over events that affect their lives”.
It can be acquired, enhanced or decreased through one or four sources
• Performance or enacting a behaviour
• Vicarious experience
• Verbal persuasion
Physiological arousal states such as anxiety
Self-Efficacy (belief in your ability to do something):
It means how confident you feel that you can do something or handle a situation.
There are 4 things that affect it:
1. Performance (doing it before) – If you’ve done it before successfully, your confidence increases.
2. Vicarious experience – Seeing someone like you succeed can make you believe you can too.
3. Verbal persuasion – Encouraging words from others (“You’ve got this!”) can boost your belief.
4. Physiological state – Feeling calm increases confidence; anxiety or fear can reduce it.
How it links to Self-Regulation Theory:
• Self-regulation is about how people manage their own behavior to reach a goal.
• Self-efficacy affects self-regulation — if you believe you can control your behavior, you’re more likely to set goals, try harder, and keep going.
In simple terms:
“If you believe you can do something, you’re more likely to actually try, stick with it, and succeed — and everything around you also plays a role.”
Explain reciprocal determinism according to bandura(it’s a Triadic model)
Explain its relation to self regulation theory and self efficacy
These are related to the social cognitive theory which was also produced by this bandura
Note:
Bandura contends that our behaviour is motivated and regulated by our continual exercise of self-influence including:
• Monitoring the determinants and effects of our behaviour
• Judging our behaviour in terms of personal standaids and environmental circumstances
• Responding positively or negatively to our behaviour depending on how it measures up to our personal standard
Great question! Let’s break it down clearly and simply:
In Bandura’s Triadic Reciprocal Model (or Reciprocal Determinism), there are three different but connected components:
- Personal Factors
→ What’s going on inside you
Examples:
• Thoughts
• Emotions
• Beliefs (like self-efficacy)
• Personality traits.
Confidence
• Goals
Think of it as your inner world.
- Behavior
→ What you actually do — your actions
Examples:
• Eating healthy
• Exercising
• Skipping class
• Smoking
It’s what someone can see you doing.
It’s separate from what you think or feel (personal factors).
- Environment
→ What’s happening around you
Examples:
• Friends, family, school, media
• Access to food, gym, healthcare
• Cultural or social norms
This is your external world.
So the difference is:
Personal factors = what’s in your mind/heart Behavior = what you physically do
But remember: They influence each other.
• Your thoughts affect what you do
• Your behavior can change how you feel or think
• Your environment affects both
Example:
You believe you can stop eating too much sugar (personal factor), so you start eating less (behavior), and your friends support you (environment).
Your confidence increases (personal factor again), and so you behave even better, and the cycle continues.
Self regulation theory is all about how you can control yourself or your behavior to meet your goals.
Self efficacy is your ability to do something.
The triadic model is related because before you can do something, your person, your behavior and your environment influences you.
Before you can do self regulation, you should be self efficacious enough to do it.
Explain the stages of change theory
Stages of Change Theory (Prochaska, DiClemente &
Norcross, 1992)
Assumes that people progress through five stages in making changes in behaviour or before people change their behavior, they must go through five stages of change.
Stages:
Precontemplation
Contemplation
Preparation
Action
Maintenance
Sure! Here’s a simple, brief explanation of each stage in the Stages of Change Model (also called Transtheoretical Model):
- Precontemplation
→ “I’m not even thinking about changing.”
The person doesn’t see a problem yet or isn’t ready to change.
- Contemplation
→ “Maybe I should change.”
The person is thinking about it, aware of the problem, but not ready to act yet.
- Preparation
→ “I’m getting ready to change.”
The person plans to take action soon and may start taking small steps.
- Action
→ “I’ve started changing.”
The person is actively making changes in behavior (e.g., exercising, quitting smoking).
- Maintenance
→ “I’m working to keep the change.”
The person has been consistent and is trying to prevent relapse and stick to the new behavior.
Would you like a short one-line memory tip for each stage?
Memory Tip – Think of a Journey:
“People Can Prepare And Maintain.” • P – Precontemplation • C – Contemplation • P – Preparation • A – Action • M – Maintenance
This short phrase helps you recall the order easily.
Or use this simple story idea:
“First, I wasn’t thinking about it (Precontemplation), then I started considering it (Contemplation), planned for it (Preparation), took action (Action), and now I’m keeping it up (Maintenance).”
Explain the precaution adoption process(what is it about and state the seven stages)
The Precaution Adoption Process Model (Weinstein, 1988)
• This serves as a model to explain why some people find difficulty in changing health-related behaviours.
• This model assumes that when people begin new and relatively complex behaviours aimed at protecting themselves from harm, they go through seven stages of belief about their personal susceptibility.
The Precaution Adoption Process cont’
• Stage 1:
People have not heard of the hazard and thus are unaware of any personal risk
• Stage 2:
People are aware of the hazard and believe that others are at risk. They hold an optimistic bias regarding their own level of risk
Stage 3:
People acknowledge their personal susceptibility and accept the notion that precaution would be personally effective, but they have not yet decided to take action.
• Stage 4:
People decide to take action
• Stage 5:
People decide that action is unnecessary
The Precaution Adoption Process cont’
• Stage 6:
People have already taken the precautions aimed at reducing risk
• Stage 7:
Involves maintaining the precaution if needed
Sure! Here’s a simple health example to explain each stage of the Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM) using breast cancer screening (mammogram) as an example:
- Unaware of the Issue
→ “I don’t know anything about breast cancer screening.”
The person has never heard about the importance of getting a mammogram.
- Unengaged by the Issue
→ “I’ve heard about it, but I don’t think it’s relevant to me.”
They know about mammograms but don’t see it as something they need to worry about.
- Deciding About Acting
→ “Should I get a mammogram or not?”
The person is now considering the pros and cons, deciding whether to act.
- Decided Not to Act
→ “I don’t think I need it.”
They’ve made a choice not to do it, possibly due to fear, cost, or false beliefs.
- Decided to Act
→ “I’ve decided I will do it.”
They’ve made up their mind to go for the mammogram.
- Acting
→ “I’m going for the mammogram now.”
The person takes action and gets the screening done.
- Maintenance (optional in some models)
→ “I’ll go for regular checkups.”
They now maintain the behavior by continuing regular screenings.
Would you like another health example—maybe birth control, vaccination, or diet change?
Explain the bystander effect and why people help in emergencies ?
Why are people likely to help when others are present?
Bystander Intervention Effect
The more people who are present in an emergency situation, the less likely it is that a given person will offer help.
+ Diffusion of Responsibility
* The tendency for people to feel less personally responsible for helping when in the presence of others
However people are likely to help when others present when:
* It is obvious there is an emergency.
× People in the group know each other and car easily read each other’s reaction to the situation.
× Members in the group have special skills (CP| swimming, e.t.c.) which they have learned to use to deal with emergencies
Sure! Here’s a brief explanation of each reason why people help others:
- Social Exchange Theory + Minimax Principle
→ People help when the benefits outweigh the costs.
(Minimax Principle: Minimize costs, maximize rewards.)
- Social Norms + Reciprocity
→ People help because society expects it.
(Reciprocity norm: “You help me, I’ll help you later.”)
- Social Responsibility Norm
→ People help because they feel a moral duty to support those in need, especially the vulnerable.
Would you like a memory tip or example to remember them better?
Bandura was a behaviorist who added cognitive touch to behaviorism.
His theory is called the social cognitive theory(formerly known as social learning theory until he added the cognitive aspect to it)
It says that your personality is shaped by the way you learn or your learning.
The cognitive bit of this is that before you can successfully learn, you need to pay attention to the persons behavior, understand the consequences of their behavior and then store this information into memory.
He said most people are not born with ability to do certain actions like being violent. But they learn it from their experiences. The experiences include observing people who are being violent or seeing people being rewarded for being violent.
People act in a certain way when as children, they learned to model their behavior after people who acted that way.
In the social learning view, a person may be predisposed to certain acts because of psychological and biological factors but they are pushed to actually take action due to factors in their environment or due to their experience or observations
Bandura’s foremost contribution has been his description of observational learning.
Observational learning occurs when the way an organism responds to something is due to observations they made of models. He said people’s behaviours are shaped by the models they were exposed to
A model is someone whose behavior is observed by another
People usually imitate others when:
They like and respect the model
They view the model as popular and attractive or as stars
They see the model get rewarded for their behavior or their behavior leads to positive outcomes
They see similarities between the model and themselves
According to this theory, models have a great impact on personality development.
Parents,teachers,adults,peers,siblings are all models for children
Social Cognitive Theory
• Self-efficacy
• Bandura(1993,1997) believes that self-efficacy is a crucial element of personality. Self-efficacy is one’s belief about one’s ability to perform behaviours that should lead to positive outcomes.
• When a person’s self-efficacy is high, he or she feels confident in executing the responses necessary to earn reinforcers.
› When self-efficacy is low, the individual worries that the necessary responses may be beyond his or her abilities.
Strengths and weaknesses of this theory:
Strengths of Social Cognitive Theory (Health Context):
1. Promotes positive role modeling:
• Health workers can influence healthy behaviors just by being examples (e.g., handwashing, exercise, quitting smoking).People learn by watching others.Example: A pregnant woman sees another mother breastfeeding and learns how to do it too.
2. Highlights the power of self-belief (self-efficacy):
• Patients are more likely to follow treatment when they believe they can succeed. Confidence affects health behavior: If a patient believes they can stick to a diet or take their medicine regularly, they’re more likely to do it
3. Explains behavior change beyond just rewards/punishments:
• It includes motivation, observation, and decision-making — important in health education. It’s not just about rewards and punishment”
What it means (in simple words):
Social Cognitive Theory says people don’t only learn by being rewarded or punished — they also learn by watching others, thinking, and making choices.
Example in health:
A child might start brushing their teeth regularly not because the parents reward or punish them, but because they see their older sibling doing it every day and think, “That’s what I should do too.”
So, this theory explains learning in a more realistic way — it includes observation, motivation, and thinking, not just “do this or get punished” like in behaviorist theories
4. Supports behavior change campaigns: • It’s used in health promotion (e.g., HIV prevention, breastfeeding advocacy, smoking cessation ads). Useful in health education campaigns. • Health promotion programs use role models (like celebrities or health workers) to encourage behavior change, like using mosquito nets or washing hands.
Weaknesses of Social Cognitive Theory (Health Context):
1. Can put pressure on the model (role model):
• Assumes the person being observed is always perfect — in real life, health workers also make mistakes. It puts too much pressure on the role model.
• It assumes the person being observed (like a nurse or health worker) is always doing the right thing — but they’re human too and can make mistakes.
2. May ignore deeper psychological issues:
• People may fail to change behavior due to trauma, depression, anxiety, not just lack of a role model. It ignores emotional or mental struggles.
• Even if a person sees a good example, things like depression, anxiety, or trauma may still stop them from acting the same way.
3. Assumes people always have equal access to observe and imitate:
• But poverty, isolation, or low health literacy can affect who people see and what they learn. Not everyone gets the chance to learn by watching others”
What it means (in simple words):
Social Cognitive Theory assumes that people can observe good examples or role models. But in reality, not everyone has access to that.
Example in health:
Imagine someone living in a very remote area — they may not see a health worker demonstrating how to use a mosquito net, or don’t have access to TV or posters showing healthy habits. So, they may miss out on learning healthy behaviors just because there’s no one around to observe.
Why it’s a weakness:
If the theory relies heavily on observation, but someone has no one to observe, then the theory doesn’t work well for them. That makes it less effective in poor or underserved areas.
4. Not all behavior is copied just by watching:
• Some health habits need personal motivation, discipline, or deeper understanding, not just observation. Watching alone doesn’t always lead to change.
• Just seeing a health worker exercise doesn’t mean someone will do it. They need personal motivation, support, or education to change.
Why did Carl Roger’s call his theory the person centered theory under humanistic theories
Define self concept
• Carl Rogers (1951, 1961,1980) based his personality theory on his extensive therapeutic interactions with many clients.
• Because of his emphasis on a person’s subjective point of view, Rogers called his approach a person-centered theory.
Self concept is your mental picture about yourself or how you see yourself in your mind or your impression about yourself
The self
• Rogers viewed personality structure in terms of just one construct. He called this construct the self, although it is widely known today as self- concept.
• Aself-concept is a collection of beliefs about one’s own nature,
unique qualities,
and typical behaviour.
What did Carl Roger’s person centered theory talk about?
He said your self concept and reality or experiences don’t always match
When this gap happens, it is called incongruence.
He said if your self concept matched your reality or experiences, it is congruent with reality.
Everyone experiences some incongruence
but it depends on how much.
• Rogers maintained that a great deal of incongruence undermines a person’s psychological well-being.
Development of the Self
• In terms of personality development, Rogers was concerned with how childhood experiences promote congruence or incongruence between one’s self-concept and one’s experience.
So if a child experienced conditional love from their parents, they’re likely to pretend to please their parents and get their love. This leads to a gap between their self concept and their reality or experiences or what they do and this causes incongruence
If a child has parents who love them unconditionally, they don’t have to pretend to appease their parents hence their self concept will be the same or similar to their experiences or the way they behave and this leads to congruence
As your self concept stabilizes, you become more loyal to your self concept so that that self concept becomes a “self fulfilling prophecy”. This causes you to behave the way you see yourself
Strength and weaknesses of person centered theory
Strengths and weakness of personality types A and B
Thank you — this is an excellent point, and your thinking is absolutely on the right track. Let’s now slow down and build a clearer explanation from what you already understand:
You said:
“I thought self-concept is just how you see yourself” — Correct. “I thought congruence is about your self-concept and your real experiences” — Also correct.
Let’s now go point by point, based only on those two concepts:
→ Self-concept = how you see yourself
→ Congruence = match between self-concept and real experiences
Now, let’s go back to the strengths of the theory using just these two ideas clearly:
- It helps patients feel better emotionally → through better self-conceptYou asked: “How does self-concept help emotional stability?”
Let’s explain it clearly:
• When a person’s self-concept is positive (they see themselves as capable, valuable, strong), they are more emotionally balanced — they feel less fear, anxiety, or hopelessness.
• But if a person sees themselves as weak, useless, or a burden, their emotions become unstable — sadness, fear, even depression can increase.
So in health care, when a nurse or doctor treats a patient with kindness and respect, the patient starts to feel:
“Maybe I’m not as useless as I thought. I still have value.” That slowly improves how they see themselves — their self-concept — which brings more emotional stability (they don’t feel as anxious or hopeless anymore). Cancer example: A cancer patient who is constantly spoken to with dignity, encouraged to express feelings, and given choices about care may begin to feel: “I’m still a person. I still matter.” That builds a better self-concept, which helps them handle their fears more calmly. So yes — self-concept and emotional stability are deeply connected.
- It encourages a healing environment → through congruence
You said it correctly: Congruence is when your self-concept matches your real-life experiences.
• If a patient sees themselves as valuable, but health staff treat them like they’re a burden, they feel incongruence → this causes stress and emotional discomfort.
• But if a patient sees themselves as valuable and is treated with respect and kindness, there is congruence → this leads to emotional peace and healing.
So, when caregivers create positive experiences (empathy, respect, warmth), it helps the person feel more congruent — their self-view and treatment match — which improves their emotional well-being.
- It builds trust in healthcare relationships → based on positive experiences that support congruence
• When a doctor or nurse is genuinely caring (congruent) and accepts the patient without judgment (unconditional positive regard), it creates a safe space.
• The patient now experiences real congruence:
“I feel safe because the way I see myself is the way I’m being treated.”
• This trust leads patients to open up, talk about symptoms, fears, or concerns. - It gives patients a sense of control → which supports positive self-concept
• When patients are allowed to make decisions or participate in their care (e.g., choosing a treatment plan or talking about preferences), it tells them:
“I have value. I have a voice.”
• This directly improves self-concept — they see themselves as capable and important — which again supports emotional strength.
Now the weaknesses — explained in the same simple way:
- It assumes every patient is ready to help themselves
• Person-centered theory believes that people can heal if they’re just given empathy and support.
• But some patients have a damaged self-concept — they feel completely hopeless or broken — and just kindness is not enough.
E.g., someone with deep trauma, depression, or substance addiction may need structured help or medication first. - It doesn’t work well in busy or emergency settings
• In theory, every patient should be listened to and supported emotionally. But in real healthcare, time is short, and staff are overwhelmed.
• So patients don’t always experience that warm support, even if they need it. That makes it hard to help them build congruence or improve their self-concept. - It’s not enough for serious mental illness
• A person with schizophrenia or suicidal thoughts may not be able to reflect on their self-concept or talk openly.
• They need medication, therapy, or crisis care first — person-centered care alone is too soft and unstructured in such cases. - Not every patient can or wants to express their feelings
• The theory assumes patients will talk and explore their feelings.
• But some patients are not emotionally expressive or may come from cultures where they don’t talk about emotions.
• So this method won’t work equally for everyone.
Would you like me to now summarize all these as a table/chart for study use?
Perfect — let’s now reframe each strength and weakness into a smooth, exam- or interview-ready sentence that sounds clear, accurate, and still connects directly to healthcare.
Strengths of Carl Rogers’ Person-Centered Theory (Rephrased Clearly):
1. Promotes emotional healing by improving self-concept.
→ When patients feel respected and valued, they begin to see themselves more positively, which improves emotional well-being and coping.
2. Encourages congruence between self-concept and real-life experiences.
→ A supportive care environment helps patients feel emotionally safe and balanced because their inner self matches how they are treated.
3. Builds trust and better communication between patients and health professionals.
→ When patients feel heard and accepted without judgment, they are more likely to share openly, improving diagnosis and care outcomes.
4. Empowers patients by giving them a sense of control in their care.
→ When patients are involved in decisions about their treatment, they feel more capable, which enhances their self-worth and motivation to recover.
Weaknesses of Carl Rogers’ Person-Centered Theory (Rephrased Clearly):
1. Assumes all patients are ready and able to help themselves.
→ Some patients with deep emotional or mental health struggles may need more structured support before they can benefit from self-directed healing.
2. May not be practical in time-limited or emergency healthcare settings.
→ The theory requires time and emotional presence, which can be difficult to offer in fast-paced or high-pressure hospital environments.
3. May not be effective for patients with serious mental illness.
→ Patients with conditions like psychosis may need medical intervention before person-centered care can be effective.
4. Not all patients are emotionally expressive or comfortable with open communication.
→ The theory works best when patients can talk freely about feelings, but some individuals or cultures may not engage this way.
Would you like me to also help you form one-line bullet points for easier memorization or a short paragraph summary version for each?
Strengths of Personality Type A and B Theory:
1. Helps identify stress-prone individuals (especially Type A).
→ This can guide early interventions to reduce stress-related health problems like hypertension and heart disease.
2. Simple and easy to apply in healthcare settings.
→ The A/B categorization makes it easier for health professionals to understand patient behavior and predict possible emotional responses.
3. Supports individualized care.
→ Knowing a patient’s personality type can help tailor counseling, treatment approaches, and stress management techniques.
4. Links personality with physical health outcomes.
→ The theory has highlighted how psychological traits (like competitiveness or calmness) can influence physical well-being.
Weaknesses of Personality Type A and B Theory:
1. Oversimplifies human personality.
→ People may not fit neatly into Type A or B; personality is more complex and may lie on a spectrum.
2. Ignores other psychological or social factors.
→ Health outcomes are influenced by many things beyond personality, like environment, support systems, and genetics. • It doesn’t fully explore how external or independent social/psychological factors — like trauma, environment, culture, socioeconomic conditions, or childhood upbringing — might also shape both health outcomes and personality development.
So you’re right that poor social support may result from Type A traits, but the critique is that the theory doesn’t consider that poor social support might already exist independently of personality — or that people’s health outcomes could be shaped more by these external factors than by personality alone.
3. Risk of labeling and bias.
→ Classifying someone as “Type A” may lead to assumptions or negative judgments without considering their full personality.
4. Outdated in modern psychology.
→ More comprehensive models like the Big Five personality traits are now seen as more accurate and detailed than the A/B theory.
Which aspect of qualities of good intelligence tests deals with consistency of test results?
Validity
Standardization
Norms
Reliability
Answer: Reliability
Explanation:
Reliability refers to the consistency of test results over time, across different test versions, or among different scorers. A reliable intelligence test will produce similar scores when taken multiple times under the same conditions.
Explanation of Other Options:
• Validity – Measures whether the test actually assesses what it is supposed to measure (e.g., does it truly measure intelligence?).
• Standardization – Ensures the test is administered and scored consistently across all test-takers.
• Norms – Provide a reference point by comparing an individual’s score to a larger population.
