Memory Flashcards

Question

Articulatory Process

Answer 1

The inner voice; repeats information like maintenance rehearsal

Answer 2

Over several trials, participants will remember monosyllabic words better than polysyllabic words because the Articulatory Process can store more syllables in its two-second capacity

Answer 3

Inhibits memory performance (the word length effect) by speaking while being presented with an item to remember

Answer 4

An investigation that involves doing two things at the same time

Answer 5

When new information blocks old information, making the old information temporarily inaccessible

Answer 6

When old information blocks new information making the new information temporarily inaccessible

Answer 7

Whether or not information can be retrieved

Answer 8

Whether or not information is present

Answer 9

Internal cues relating to the emotional or physical state of an individual

Answer 10

External cues relating to the environment the individual is in

Answer 11

If a cue helps recall, it has to be present at retrieval as it was at encoding

Answer 12

Forgetting is more likely if cues present at encoding are present at recall because the absence of cues makes the information temporarily inaccessible

Answer 13

The ability of a theory or hypothesis to explain the phenomenon to which it pertains

Answer 14

A legal term used to describe using a person who viewed a crime or event as evidence in court

Answer 15

Information giving to an eyewitness after an event that affects eyewitness testimony

Answer 16

Questions that suggest a desired answer by its form or content

Answer 17

When co-witnesses discuss after an event

Answer 18

Several factors that lead to inaccurate or influenced memory

Answer 19

Replaced memory due to different factors

Answer 20

Distortion of memories or contamination due to influence by other witnesses

Answer 21

Questions that are used to obtain key, specific information

Answer 22

A state of emotional or physical distress manifested by sweating and increased heart rate

Answer 23

When the witnesses of an event focus on a weapon and do not encode other information, such as the face, so the information decays

Answer 24

An automatic psychological reaction to an event that is perceived stressful or frightening which improved alertness and attention as it prepares the body to either fight or flee

Answer 25

Performance improves as anxiety or arousal up to an optimum level and then declines with further increases

Answer 26

A mental framework of beliefs anf expectations that influence cognitive processing (thoughts) developed from experience

Answer 27

A police technique for interviewing witnesses to a crime, which encourages them to recreate thr original context in order to increase the accessibility of stored information

Answer 28

How well a technique works

Answer 29

How suitable a technique is

Answer 30

A statistic analysis which uses secondary data from multiple studies to make a final conclusion

Answer 31

It was published by Atkinson and Shffrin in 1969, it is a representation of how the memory works and it is linear

Answer 32

Information is input into the sensory register as environmental stimuli and encoded as one of the five senses. If information is paid attention to, it enters the short term memory. If not, it will decay. If maintenance rehearsal is carried out, information will stay in the short term memory. If not, the information will decay. If prolonged rehearsal is carried out, information will enter the long term memory. Information can be passed from the long term to the short term memory for recall and this is referred to as retrieval.

Answer 33

The five senses: Haptic, echoic, iconic and olfactory

Answer 34

A high capacity with low duration of half a second, most of which will decay (Sperling using grid of letters)

Answer 35

Capacity: 7 +/-2 digits (Jacobs in 1887 using digit spain)/ 7 +/- 2 chunks (Miller) / 4 +/-1 chunks (Cowan) Duration: 18-30 secs (Peterson and Peterson using trigrams and verbal distractions) Encoding: Acoustically (Baddeley using word lists); Acoustically similar words are harder to remember because they merge

Answer 36

Capacity and duration: unlimited (Bahrick year book study) Encoding: Semantically (Baddeley using word list); 15 years, cued = 90%, free = 60%; 48 years, cued = 70%, free = 30%, semantically similar words are harder to remember because they merge

Answer 37

Several issues taken from everyday life events Information does not alway enter using prolonged rehearsal Low external val Artificial stimuli is used Trigrams and word lists which do not reflect real life. Low external val Case study of CW Damage to hippocampus, D of STM reduced to 7 secs, no new LTMs but could access old ones STM and LTM are separate Raising real life situations as it is applied to real life

Answer 38

Jacobs conducted his study a long time ago. There was a lack of control over time and location which may have influenced the results, lowering internal validity. Miller may have overestimated the capacity of the STM Cowan reviewed this research and concluded that the capacity was about 4 chunks

Answer 39

Higher external validity as he used real-life meaningful memories Supported by Shephard whose recall rates were much lower with meaningless pictures

Answer 40

Tulving, because he realised that the MSMM was too simplistic and inflexibile.

Answer 41

Semantic: stores objective facts, concepts and facts. It is declarative, requires effort, rote-learnt and not time-stamped. Episodic: stores events, places, people and emotions. It is declarative, required effort and is also learnt through practice and is time-stamped. Procedural: stores skills. It is not declarative, does not require effort, learnt through experience and time-stamped.

Answer 42

CW is clinical evidence; lost his memory due to virus in hippocampus Episodic greatly impaired, Semantic and Procedural are intact Explains real life behaviour Abnormal case Brains scans support Tulving asked ppt to perform tasks during PET scans Left-prefrontal cortex, right prefrontal cortex and cerebellum Empirical evidence Activity does not equal function Used to better people's lives Belleville showed that episodic memory can be improved in older people with mild cognitive impairment; trained group performed recall activities while others did not not and the trained group performed better Used to improve quality of life

Answer 43

The Working Memory Model is one that explain how the working memory, the part of the brain that is being used to complete a task that is being worked on and is required to store information repeatedly, works. It is non-linear as information does not flow in one sequence and non-unitary as it is made of different components. It was published by Baddeley and Hitch

Answer 44

The Central Executive: the supervisory component which monitors all incoming information, decides what to pay attention to and allocates tasks to the different components despite its limited processing capacity The Phonological Loop: Deals with auditory information and preservation of the order of information. Divided into the Phonological store (inner ear) which deals with auditory information and articulatory process (inner voice) which allows maintenance rehearsal and has a capacity of 2 secs (supported by Baddeley's word length effect) The Visuospatial Sketchpad (inner eye): Stores visual and spatial information. Limited capacity of three to four items (Baddeley). Divided into visual cache (stores visual data) and inner scribe (arrangement of objects in visual field) The Episodic Buffer: General store of the working memory. Receive information from the central executive and other slave systems and temporarily stores, manipulates and integrates them. It has a limited capacity of about 4 chunks and is said to be responsible for time stamping

Answer 45

Lack of evidence for central executive Inferences but not enough evidence Shah and Myake question whether it is unitary or if there are separate central executives for the verbal and auditory systems Lack of clarity over exactct role Braver et al used FMRI to find activity during single and dual task in prefrontal cortex KF supports stores of WMM KF, motorcycle accident which damaged occipital loe, poor acoustic recall but normal visual recall Separate components Explains real-life behaviour which increases external val Experiments support articulatory process and phonlogical loop Baddeley, Thompson and Bucananshows ppts mono and polysyllabic words over time and recall was better on mono words words length effect = cap of articulatory process Empirical support and explains real life events

Answer 46

Interference theory and retrieval failure

Answer 47

It is an explanation for forgetting that states that it occurs because two pieces of information block or merge with each either which makes the needed information inaccessible

Answer 48

Proactive interference occurs when an old piece of information merges with a new piece of information which makes it temporarily inaccessible and leads to forgetting. Retroactive interference occurs when a new piece of information blocks an old piece of information which makes it temporarily inaccessible and leads to forgetting.

Answer 49

They investigated the effect of interference by making the experimental group learn two word pairs out of three lists and making the control group learn one word pair list. They found that the experimental group found it difficult to access the required word list. Hence, it was concluded that this was due to retroactive and proactive interference.

Answer 50

They tested the effects of similarity on the interference theory by giving six groups of participants two sets of materials and asking them to recall. They discovered that the more similar the new information, the more difficult to recall the old information which provides evidence for retroactive interference as the group with no new list has the most accurate recall.

Answer 51

Evidence from lab studies INterference: most consistently researched finding McGeoch and McDonald, controlled environment, only reason are the types of interference Empirical evidence Artificial information is used Meaningless stuff like trigrams and word lists Does not reflect real life so low ecological validity Some research considered the effects of interferences in everyday situations Baddeley and Hitch investigated rugby players and found that recall depended on the number of games they had played not how long ago the match was It explains everyday life so high ecological validity

Answer 52

It states that if cues present at encoding are absent at recall, forgetting is more likely because the information is temporarily inaccessible. It was proposed by Tulving while reviewing research into retrieval failure

Answer 53

Context-dependent and State-dependent cues Other cues may be encoded in a meaningful way, such as mnemonic techniques, to aid retrieval

Answer 54

Context-dependent cues are external cues, regarding the environment such as the temperature. As investigated by Goddeley and Baddeley (1975) who experimented in land and water, recall is 40% lower in non-matching conditions. For example, if the information is encoding in a cold temperature and is recalled in a cold environment, it is most likely going to be forgotten.

Answer 55

State-dependent cues are internal cues, which involves the physiological and emotional state of the body. As investigated by Carter and Cassaday (1998) who tested the effects of recall when the participants were on and off antihistamines, recall was higher in matching conditions because the cues present at encoding were present at recall.

Answer 56

Impressive range of research Godden and Baddeley, Carter and Cassaday, Michael Eyesenck proves that it is the main reason for forgetting High scientific credibility and internal validity The effect of context-dependent cues have been questioned Baddeley says that in real life context dependent cues are not as prominent Never as different as water and air, same air in room and exam hall Cannot be generalised to real life Context dependent cues may vary depending on the kind of memory being tested Godden and Baddeley changed their test from recall to recognition and found that performance was the same in all four conditions Explanation can be applied to even fewer conditions, reducing it explanatory power

Answer 57

A legal term referring to the use of a person who viewed a crime or event as evidence in court

Answer 58

Any information given after the crime that can affect the eyewitness testimony which includes leading questions and post event discussion

Answer 59

Any question that suggests a desired answer by its form or content. They could lead to retrospective interference and make accurate information unavailable

Answer 60

Loftus and Palmer found that leading questions have two main effects: response bias and substitution bias

Answer 61

When co-witnesses dicuss the crime or event with each other which contained the separate testimonies by reducing their accuracy

Answer 62

Gabber found that 71% of his participants included details they mostly heard from another witness and this is referred to as witness conformity

Answer 63

Practical uses in real world Loftus shows that questions can have a great impact on witnesses so police officers need to be careful how they phrase quesiton 72% overturned verdicts in innocence project due to ewt Higher QOL Artificial tasks Loftus and Palmer used clips of accident which reduced this stress Foster found that emotions can have influence on memory as ewt can have significant consequences when used in real life Lack of ex val Unethical to harm ppts and impractical to wait for one to happen Simulated research could lead to demand characteristics Zaragoza and McCloskey say ppts gave answers because of demand characteristics Ppts may feel the need to be helpful especially if the university is prestigious or they are getting paid so they answer a leading question Lacking internal validity Loftus and Palmer hid the critical question

Answer 64

It is a state of emotional or physical arousal which is manifested by sweating or increased heartrate. it may reduce or increase the attention paid which determines whether or not the information will be encoded or whether it will decay

Answer 65

Johnson and Scott (1976) explored the negative effect of anxiety through the study of the Weapon Focus Effect. By varying the scene in high anxiety and low anxiety conditions, they discovered more accuracy in the low anxiety conditions and concluded that this was due to the Weapon Focus Effect as the high anxiety participants encountered a paper knife while the low anxiety participants did not. Hence, they concluded that anxiety negatively affected eyewitness testimony as it lowered their accuracy by making them focus on the dangerous weapon and ignore the other finer details because they did not pay attention which led to decay.

Answer 66

However, Yuille and Cutshall (1986) investigated a contradiction—the positive effect of anxiety. They did this by questioning a sample of victims of a real shooting several months after the accident and comparing it to their original sample. They found that the high anxiety participants were more accurate and concluded that this was due to the fight or flight response which improved alertness and attention because it was a life or death situation. Hence, they paid more attention due to adrenaline and encoded more information which was then retrievable.

Answer 67

Deffenbacher suggests that this apparent contradiction can be explained through the Yerkes-Dodson law which states that the higher the anxiety, the higher the performance until the optimal point is reached then the performance further decreases.

Answer 68

Issues with Weapon focus effect Johnson and Scott may have been measuring surprise instead of anxiety Pickel (1998) conducted a similar experiment using scissors, a handgun, a wallet or raw chicken as the handheld items in a hairdressing video. Because the scissors is the most likely to cause harm, it would be assumed that the scissors would create low anxiety and lead to less accuracy. However, they found that eyewitness testimony was poorer in the high unusualness condition, i.e the handgun and the chicken. Low internal validity Issues with field study research Misleading Information such as TV and post event discussion happen between interview and event, leading to retroactive interference Lowers internal validity Impractical and unethical to question the eyewitnesses straight after event Ethical Issues Created anxiety, although internally valid, is very risky as it could lead to psychological harm Which is why real-life studies are very important The advantages and disadvantages balance each other out This questions the need for lab studies, but they can be compared to natural studies

Answer 69

A police technique for interviewing witnesses to a crime which encouraged them to recreate the original content to increase the accessibility of stored information

Answer 70

Fisher and Geiselman (1992) reviewed memory literature, i.e different memory studies, and related this to the way that interviews were carried out by the police in real life. One thing that they found is that people remember things better when provided with retrieval cues. They developed this interviewing technique to evoke effective memory recall which can increase the accuracy of eyewitness testimony and increase the likelihood of justice.

Answer 71

Report everything: where the interviewer encourages the witness to take their time to reiterate every detail from the event, even those seemingly irrelevant, as these details include cues which could later serve as key information) Reinstatement of context: when the interviewer encourages the interviewee to mentally recreate the environment from the original incident by remembering all sensory information, so the cues are accessible and the information is more accurate).

Answer 72

These components are based on the theory of retrieval failure (specifically based on context-dependent cues by Carter and Cassaday) which states that recall is more likely to occur if the cues present at encoding are present at retrieval. A high consistency between the interview and the original event increases the likelihood of the presence of cues which triggers accurate recall.

Answer 73

Change of order: when the interviewer encourages the interviewee to report the order of the events in reverse) Change perspective: when the interviewee is encouraged to recall the event from multiple perspectives, such as from that of the witnesses

Answer 74

These components aim to increase accuracy of information retrieval reduced by schema (a mental framework based on expectation which hinders cognitive processing developed from experience) on testimony. Hence, witnesses are forced to focus on the actual events as opposed to their expectations.

Answer 75

Fisher (1987) developed some additional elements to the CI to focus on the social dynamics of the interaction, such as adequately establishing and relinquishing eye contact. This builds a rapport between the interviewer and interviewee which reduces eyewitness anxiety, minimizing distractions and increasing accurate disclosure.

Answer 76

Research suppports Kohnken meta analysis of 53 studies found a 34% increase in accurate information compared to use of traditional interview Positive effect in lab environment shows that only CI caused the change in accuracy Large scale emp evidence which could lead to safety for the pubic, a higher QOL and acc investigations College students not representative so lower pop val Some components may be more valuable Milne and Bull examined the relative effectiveness of each component by interviewing undergraduates and children using one component each and comparing them to a control group (who were simply instructed to try again). Recall across all the components produced marginally more information than the control group, i.e a small improvement compared to the control group. First two components were significantly higher so they are more useful Emp EV for effectiveness but not all parts are effective Practical disadvantages Kebbel and Wagstaff only received only a brief 4-hour training so not know how to use to get most accurate results Time consuming, witness make lots of info, not practical to analyse in addition to heavy workload Not appropriate and might not be as effective

Memory Flashcards

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