Approaches

Question 1

Cartesian Dualism

Answer 1

The mind is capable of independent action and is separate from the body

Question 2

Empiricisim

Answer 2

The idea that all science should only accept and produce empirical evidence

Question 3

Introspection

Answer 3

systematically gain insight to the nsture of mental processes by documenting behaviour an self-report

Question 4

Hypothesis testing

Answer 4

using data to support and challenge hypotheses; self-correcting theory and construction

Question 5

Behaviourism

Answer 5

an approach of psychology only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed and measured such as stimulus and response research

Question 6

Stimulus

Answer 6

a change in the environment detected by the senses

Question 7

Response

Answer 7

a response to stimuli

Question 8

SR psychology

Answer 8

the study of stimulus and response in relation to behaviour and learning

Question 9

Tabula rasa

Answer 9

Bland slate; the idea that all humans are born empty and that they learn all behaviours so they can survive

Question 10

Classical conditioning

Answer 10

a procure where an animal or person learns to associate a reflex response with a new stimulus

Question 11

Unconditioned stimulus

Answer 11

The stimulus that produces the reflex response such as the food for Pavlov’s dogs

Question 12

Unconditioned stimulus

Answer 12

The stimulus that produces the reflex response, such as the food for Pavlov’s dogs

Question 13

Neutral stimulus

Answer 13

The stimulus that initially gives no response

Question 14

Conditioned stimulus

Answer 14

A neutral stimulus presented with the unconditioned stimulus, such as Pavlov’s bell

Question 15

Conditioned response

Answer 15

The response that is learnt, it not occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented, such as the dog’s salivation

Question 16

Operant conditioning

Answer 16

A method of learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify behavior

Question 17

Learning

Answer 17

An active process whereby humans and animals operate in their environment

Question 18

Positive reinforcement

Answer 18

Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed which causes the likelihood of that behaviour to increase

Question 19

Negative reinforcement or avoidance

Answer 19

This occurs when an animal or human avoids something unpleasant by increasing rewarding behaviour

Question 20

Punishment

Answer 20

This is an unpleasant consequence of a behaviour which causes it to reduce

Question 21

Determinism

Answer 21

An approach that assumes that one thing will certainly determine or cause a change

Question 22

Reductionism

Answer 22

An approach that reduces complex phenomena or behavior to basic or unitary explanations

Question 23

Social learning theory

Answer 23

An approach that suggests that we learn through observation and imitation of others in a social context

Question 24

Indirect learning

Answer 24

Learning by observing and imitating others

Question 25

Observation and imitation

Answer 25

Learning by watching someone else perform an action and attempting to replicate the same action to get similar results

Question 26

Various reinforcement

Answer 26

The act of imitating an observed action only if it is seen to be rewarding

Question 27

Mediational processes

Answer 27

The internal, mental processes involved in observation and imitation

Question 28

Attention

Answer 28

The extent to which we notice certain behaviour

Question 29

Retention

Answer 29

The extent to which behaviour is remembered

Question 30

Motor reproduction

Answer 30

The ability of the observer to perform the observed behaviour

Question 31

Motivation

Answer 31

The wil to perform the behavior which is often determined by whether said behaviour is rewarded or punished

Question 32

Identification

Answer 32

Being more likely to imitate someone because they are someone they have identified with as they possess similar characteristics such as gender or status

Question 33

Role models

Answer 33

People that can be identified with and are likely to be imitated

Question 34

Modelling

Answer 34

The act of being a role model to others so they may imitate behaviour

Question 35

Cognitivism

Answer 35

The idea that internal mental processes can and should be studied using controlled experiments to make inferences

Question 36

Input

Answer 36

A change in the environment that enters the memory

Question 37

Mediational processes

Answer 37

The mental process that happens between input and memory

Question 38

Output or Retrieval

Answer 38

The change in behaviour due to input

Question 39

Theoretical models

Answer 39

Simplifications using diagrams to help us understand

Question 40

Information Processing Approach

Answer 40

This suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval

Question 41

Computer Models

Answer 41

This suggests that there are similarities in the way that information is processed using concepts such as encoding and the use of stores to hold information

Question 42

Cognitive neuroscience

Answer 42

The scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes, the mapping of raí areas to make specific cognitive functions

Question 43

Biological Determinism

Answer 43

The idea that behaviour or a ahcnge in behaviour is reliant on the influence of genes, neurochemistry or biostructure

Question 44

Genes

Answer 44

A segment of DNA inherited from parents

Question 45

Biostructure

Answer 45

The arrangement of parts of the body to form an organ, system or living thing

Question 46

Neurochemistry

Answer 46

Relating to the chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning

Question 47

Twin study

Answer 47

A study carried out to investigate the behaviour of twins and determine if biology can explain their behaviour

Question 48

Phenotype

Answer 48

An expression of the genotype

Question 49

Genotype

Answer 49

the genetic makeup

Question 50

Evolutionary psychology

Answer 50

The study of behaviour in relation to adaptive characteristics that are passed down through generations

Question 51

Unconscious mind

Answer 51

The things that we are unaware of and cannot become aware of

Question 52

Conscious mind

Answer 52

The part of the mind that we are aware of

Question 53

Preconscious mind

Answer 53

The things that we could become aware of if we tried hard enough

Question 54

Id

Answer 54

The primitive biological part of the personality that operates on the pleasure principle

Question 55

Ego

Answer 55

The executive of the personality that uses cognitive abilities to manage and control the id and superego

Question 56

Superego

Answer 56

Works on the morality principle and opposes the desires of the id

Question 57

Intrapsychic conflict

Answer 57

Conflict between the components of the personality that can lead to anxiety

Question 58

Defence mechanisms

Answer 58

Coping mechanisms that the ego uses to protect it from id-ego conflicts

Question 59

Psychosexual development

Answer 59

The process during which personality and sexual behaviour mature through a series of stages

Question 60

Fixation

Answer 60

Getting stuck at one of the stages of Psychosexual development

Question 61

Libido

Answer 61

The desire to live

Question 62

Pleasure zone

Answer 62

Any area of the body that is pleasurable to touch

Question 63

Primary activity

Answer 63

Any activity that appease the pleasure zone

Question 64

Free will

Answer 64

The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces

Question 65

Hierarchies of need

Answer 65

A system where individuals rank personal and growth needs in other to reach self-actualisation

Question 66

Self-actualisation

Answer 66

The realisation of one’s potentialities, especially considered as a drive or need present in everyone

Question 67

Ideal self-image

Answer 67

When an individual wants to be

Question 68

Actual self-image

Answer 68

What an individual actually is

Question 69

Congruence

Answer 69

The state of balance when an individual’s self-image is not equivalent to their ideal self-image leading to feelings of low self-worth

Question 70

Unconditional positive regard

Answer 70

When love is given freely without conditions

Question 71

Client-centered therapy

Answer 71

An adaptation of the Q-sort assessment that measures a person’s congruence and aims to make them reach congruence and high self-worth

Question 72

What is psychology and when does it date back to?

Answer 72

Psychology is the study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour in a certain context. The idea of psychology being a science dates back to around 1880 when the first lab was established. However, its philosophical roots stretch back much earlier than this.

Question 73

Give three facts about the origin of psychology

Answer 73

Rene Descartes(1596-1650), a French philosopher, suggested that the mind is capable of independent action and is from the body and this is known as ‘Cartesian dualism’. In the 17th to 19th centuries, psychology was then a branch of philosophy and prioritised ideas rather than evidence. John Locke (1632-1704), however, proposed empiricism (the idea that all human experiences are gained through the senses and humans neither inherit knowledge nor instincts), thus arguing that all science should only accept and produce empirical evidence.

Question 74

What did Wundt do?

Answer 74

In 1873, Wundt opened the first experimental laboratory and Psychology emerged as a distinct discipline in its own right; he was the first to be systematic with his studies and is considered the ‘father of psychology’. He also proposed the theory of structuralism which, after breaking down into constituent parts, described conscious thought as being made up of thoughts, ideas, perception, sense and emotion. He also published the first book on psychology: ‘Principles Of Physiological Psychology’.
Furthermore, Wundt also contributed introspection to the emergence of psychology, a pioneering method where he would document and describe the nature of human consciousness by systematically gaining insight into the nature of mental processes. He did this by having participants self-report their understanding of their own mental and emotional state after presenting them a stimulus such as a visual image or sound. This then enabled the comparison of different responses to the same stimulus. This was the first scientific process at the time as he used a standardised procedure so it could be replicated to achieve an empirical measurement

Question 75

What is the scientific approach?

Answer 75

The scientific approach is the process of objectively establishing facts through testing and experimentation. This is achieved using a systematic procedure (when participants are all treated the same way so they all get the same experience) and empirical methods (methods that can be measured and observed) while controlling variables (when causation can be asserted because the extraneous various are controlled so they do not affect the dependent variables) so the results are reliable and objective and an hypothesis can be tested.

Question 76

Give a strength of the scientific approach

Answer 76

There is a significant reliance on objective and systematic methods.
Scientific methods rely on a belief in concepts being determined then a cause can be established about behaviour through empirical and replicable methods.
Therefore, new theories are continually emerging and developing and testing hypotheses enables self-correction.
Much of the subject matter of psychology is unobservable, therefore cannot be measured with any degree of accuracy.
Overall, this is a strength as it gives scientific credibility to psychology.

Question 77

Give three weaknesses of the scientific approach

Answer 77

Scientific psychologists create situations that create artificial behaviours. Hence, results may lack ecological validity.
Much of the subject matter of psychology is unobservable, therefore cannot be measured with any degree of accuracy.
Not all psychologists share the view that human behaviour can be explored through scientific methods.

Question 78

Evaluate introspection

Answer 78

One limitation of introspection is the focus on ‘non-observable’ behaviour.
Wundt’s limitation required participants to report on their conscious experiences which cannot be observed.
For example, processes like memory and perception are impossible to observe.
This is a weakness because Wundt’s approach lacks reliability as his results have not been reproduced by other researchers because patterns of behaviour could not be established.

Another criticism is its lack of accuracy.
Nisbett and Wilson (1977) found in an investigation following Wundt’s that participants have very little knowledge of processes underlying our behaviours, beliefs and attitudes.
Instead, participants were unaware of their thoughts and choices, suggesting that we are unable to observe our own thoughts and feelings. This is referred to as the ‘Halo effect’.
This suggests that we are not aware of our behaviours and attitudes outside of conscious awareness and introspection would not cover them.

One strength is that introspection is used in contemporary research.
Csikzent and Hunter (2003) used introspection to study happiness in their work in the area of positive psychology.
They found that when teenagers are engaged in challenging tasks, they were happier in comparison to an everyday task.
This is a strength as it suggests that introspection has some relevance in measuring certain aspects of behaviour.

Question 79

What is behaviourism and what did behaviourists propose?

Answer 79

Behaviorism(1913-1960s) is the study of stimulus-response research. Behaviourists proposed that, at birth, the mind is a blank slate (‘tabula rasa’) and, from that moment onward everything is learnt.

Question 80

State the assumptions of behaviourism

Answer 80

This approach is only interested in studying behavior that can be observed and measured in accordance with John Locke’s theory of empiricism.
It is not interested in studying mental processes of the mind, such as thoughts, as they are unobservable.
Early behaviorists, such as John Watson rejected introspection as it contained too many vague and untestable concepts.
Behaviourists tried to maintain more control in their studies so they relied more on lab experiments to conduct their research. They believed that all species learn in a similar way, so in research, animals were often substituted for humans

Question 81

What are the three main concepts of behaviourism?

Answer 81

Learning, classical conditioning (Pavlov’s dogs), operant conditioning (skinner’s rats)

Question 82

Evaluate behaviourism

Answer 82

It is possible to argue that the Behaviorist approach takes a mechanistic view of human behavior. This can also be considered reductionist as it breaks down such a complex behavior into one simple explanation, i.e stimulus and response.
It assumes that all individuals will passively react the same way to stimuli, like a machine, hence, mechanistic. This is inappropriate because, unlike machines or animals, humans have dispositions, free will and biological triggers.
This is a weakness as behaviorism provides a response, which may be more successful for unintelligent animals, as an inappropriate response for human behavior as it ignores other factors such as disposition, which may play a significant role in the response to stimuli.

It is also possible to argue that the Behaviourist approach is environmentally deterministic.
This refers to how the approach assumes that all stimuli will affect human behavioral response. This ignores free will that humans have to make significant choices in their lives.
However, Skinner rejects this and argues that freewill is an illusion caused by our past learning experiences as everything is learnt.
This is a weakness as it ignores free will, which is a crucial element of human behavior.

The behavioral approach has real-life applications.
Concepts from the approach can be used in school behavior policies, such as achievement policies, in criminal justice such as prison and in child rearing.
This is a strength as it can help individuals to live happy lives and society to be safe and orderly so improving quality of life.

Question 83

Social learning theory?

Answer 83

This approach assumes that we learn through observation and imitation of others in a social context. It states that we learn directly, through classical and operant conditioning, but also indirectly through observing and imitating others.

Question 84

What concepts are involved in the social learning theory

Answer 84

Vicarious reinforcement, Mediational processes (attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation; behaviour can be learnt and used at a later date), identification (shutts)

Question 85

Who investigated identification in social learning theory?

Answer 85

Shutts

Question 86

Who investigated the social learning theory and how?

Answer 86

Bandura investigated social learning theory. In 1961, one group of children watched a model violently playing with a bobo doll while another watched nonviolent play and then were covertly observed as they played alone. It was found that children imitated specific behaviour such as hitting and saying ‘pow’ so it was concluded that behaviour can be learned through observation and imitation.
In 1963, however, a similar investigation was carried out where an adult model was shown violently hitting the doll but one group watched him get rewarded and another watched him get told off. It was found that children who watched him get rewarded were more likely to imitate the behaviour so it was concluded that cognitive processes affect learning.

Question 87

Evaluate Social Learning Theory

Answer 87

It is possible to argue that SLT is a less reductionist explanation for human behaviour than the Behaviourist approach.
This is because the approach recognises that learning a new behaviour is not simply a process of stimulus and response but involves mediational processes active during learning.
This was demonstrated in Bandura’s 1963 experiment where praise was the greatest motivation to imitate behaviour. This showed that the participants thought about whether or not the behaviour would be beneficial to imitate or not. The time between the stimulus and response also showed the processes of attention and retention.
This is a strength as SLT provides a more complete and accurate explanation as to how humans learn behaviours by acknowledging and demonstrating the role of cognitive mediational processes.

It is also possible to argue that the evidence lab studies lack validity.
They may lack external validity as controlled lab environments do not reflect real life situations. For example, a parent or teacher would be present to moderate aggressive behaviours before they become excessive.
Additionally, it may lack internal validity because participants are supposed to attack a bobo doll and may have done so due to demanding characteristics to please the researcher rather than as a result of natural behaviour. Furthermore, some of the behaviour might just be playing in an exploratory way as the purpose of bobo-doll is to strike it.
Bandura also argued that participants imitated specific behaviours such as hitting with a hammer and shouting ‘pow’ which indicate clear imitation and not just innocent play.
This is a limitation as lab settings may not reflect how individuals learn behaviour. Thus, the measurement of imitation may be flawed.

The social learning theory underestimates the influence of biological factors.
A reliable finding is that boys are more aggressive than girls.
This is very likely to be the result of testosterone, a hormone linked to aggression which is more prevalent in males.
This is a weakness as this important influence of behaviour is not accounted for so this approach may be an incomplete explanation.

Question 88

What is the cognitive approach and what does it hope to achieve?

Answer 88

In contrast to the behavioural approach, the cognitive approach argues that internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically. As a result, this approach studies the areas of behaviour that the behaviourist approach ignores, such as memory, perception and thinking.
Cognitive psychology seeked to use controlled experiments to make inferences about internal mental processes.

Question 89

What is one way to study internal mental processes?

Answer 89

Theoretical models

Question 90

What are two types of theoretical models?

Answer 90

A key model is the information processing approach which suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include: input, storage and retrieval. This is seen in the Multistore Model of Memory.
Another important model used is computer models where the mind is compared to a computer. This suggests that there are similarities in the way that the information is processed, These models use concepts such as encoding (turning information into a usable format) and the use of stores to hold information is processed. These models have been useful in the development of artificial intelligence.

Question 91

What role does schema play?

Answer 91

Another important assumption is the role of schema. A schema is an individuals’ beliefs or expectations that develop as we experience the world. They act as a teamwork so that we can interpret incoming information. Infant’s schema are innate motor functions like grasping and sucking but our schema become more detailed and sophisticated as we get older so we have schemas for apples and beaches.
Schemas allow us to process a lot of information quickly and this is useful as a sort of mental shortcut that prevents us from becoming overwhelmed. However, they may also distort our interpretations of sensory information, leading to perceptual errors.

Question 92

Evaluate cognitivism

Answer 92

The Cognitive approach uses scientific and objective methods through the use of lab studies.
This means that this approach produces empirical evidence to support the inferences that it makes about internal metal processes. The use of replicable experiments means that this evidence can be shown to be reliable.
For example, Peterson and Peterson (1959) used trigrams to test the duration of the short-term memory. Each participant received the same stimuli and the only condition that changed in each trial was the time required to wait before recall. As recall reduced with time, this enabled the inference that the short term memory has a duration of between 18-30 seconds and that the STM is more likely to decay as time passes.
This is a strength as it enables a scientifically valid study of mental processes, something which no other approach has achieved and has greatly enhanced our understanding of how the mind may work .

The Cognitive approach can be accused of machine reductionism.
For example, the information processing model assumes that the mind can be organised into the separate stages of input, storage and retrieval and that just like a machine these processes occur consistently and automatically. However, it is possible to argue that this is not an appropriate way to describe the thought processes of humans as they are not Fallible like computers and also experience emotional states.
This can be seen in Johnson and Scott’s weapon focus effect where the anxiety emotion caused by the presence of a weapon led to a reduced capacity to store and retrieve information for an eye witness account
As such, the cognitive approach can be seen to be reductionist in the way that it fails to consider the influence of other variable factors on mental processes such as human error and/or emotions.

The lab studies used in the cognitive approach may lack external validity.
The use of artificial stimuli in experiments does allow high control but it means that the stimuli used do not reflect real-life mental processes.
For example, most studies on memory use word lists (such as Baddeley 1965 work on encoding in the STM) or digit lists (such as Jacobs original experiment on capacity in the STM). These are artificial and meaningless.
This is a weakness as the use of artificial stimuli mean that these experiments cannot recreate the way that the human mind works when using real-life information and therefore may not accurately describe and therefore cannot be generalised to real-life mental processing.

Question 93

According to the biological approach, what factors affect our behaviour?

Answer 93

Genes are directly inherited from our parents and known as ‘heredity’ and they determine what our cells develop into such as bone, skin or heart muscles. They may also determine behavioural traits as well which explains why some may share the same behavioural characteristics as their parents.
Biostructure is the arrangement or organisation of parts of the body to form an organ, system or living things. This approach mostly refers to the brain structure and the endocrine system.
Neurochemistry relates to the chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning such as serotonin and dopamine.

Question 94

What is studying genotype and Phenotype important? (define them)

Answer 94

Genotype is the actual genetic makeup of their genes while phenotype is the way that genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics which is inevitably influenced by environmental factors. This illustrates that much of human behaviour depends on an interaction between the inherited factors (nature) and the environment (nurture).

Question 95

Who investigated the genetic basis of OCD?

Answer 95

To investigate whether there is a genetic basis for OCD, Nestadt et al (2010) reviewed previewed twins studies. He found that monozygotic twins are found to have higher concordance rates than dizygotic twins which suggests that there could be a genetic basis because monozygotic twins share 100% while dizygotic twins share 50% (the same as any sibling).

Question 96

Why is studying adaptive characteristics good?

Answer 96

Adaptive characteristics are passed down through the generations. This is referred to as evolution and might explain behaviours such as memory, attachment and fight-or-flight. For example, males may be attracted to young women because they are more fertile.

Question 97

Evaluate the biological approach

Answer 97

One of the major strengths of the biological perspective is that it employs scientific methods.
This means that there is reliable and empirical evidence for all of the assumptions of this approach. For example, Nestadt et al used twin studies where he controlled the conditions so IV was whether the twins were MZ or DZ and the dependent variable was the concordance rate.
For example, Tulving (1985) found different parts of the brain are active when accessing different long term memory. This research is empirical as it can be observed by all. It can also be replicated to produce consistent results.
This is a major strength as it increases the validity of the approach as the research has clear evidence supporting it.

Another major strength is that the biological approach has resulted in the development of treatment.
For example, SSRIs are used to treat OCD. The effectiveness of this was demonstrated by Soomro et al (2009) who found that 70% of people responded positively to the drug therapy. SSRIs work by targeting the serotonin transmitter and by restoring the balance of this to relieve OCD symptoms.
Additionally, understanding the effect of stress, sleep and diet on mood and behaviour has further allowed individuals to live more happy lives.
This is a strength as this research has led to dramatic improvements in the quality of life of individuals especially those suffering from psychological disorders.

A weakness of the approach is that it can be considered deterministic.
This means that it assumes that if a causal factor is present then it will inevitably lead to a particular effect. An example of these factors include genes, biostructure and neurotransmitters.
For example, Nestadt et al argued that OCD has a genetic cause so if that gene is present, it is assumed that it will cause OCD. Hence, by extension, an individual with shy parents will have the same personality. However, this fails to consider free will as humans have some choice in their behaviour, such as deliberately forcing oneself to engage in social behaviour so as not to be shy.
Genes also have little predictive value as their presence does not always determine the same outcome.
Furthermore, if individuals cannot control their behaviour due to biological factors, this poses a serious moral question to the legal system as it can be charged to be unfair to punish individuals for actions beyond their control.
Overall, this is a weakness as the biological approach may be an inappropriate and deterministic explanation for human behaviour.

Question 98

Who was the main psychologist for the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 98

Freud

Question 99

What does the psychodynamic approach assume?

Answer 99

This approach assumes that there are three parts of the mind: the unconscious (the part of the mind that we are unaware of yet has an effect on our conscious mind), the conscious (the things we are aware of) and the preconscious (things we could become aware of if we tried like memories and dreams). Psychic determinism is when unconscious forces and drives are inborn and control or determine behaviour.
Freud believed that all behaviour was driven by the unconscious even seemingly meaningless speech errors called parapraxes.

Question 100

Two ways to access the unconscious mind

Answer 100

Dream analysis: dreams are referred to as the royal road of the unconscious and an analysis can help access the unconscious mind. The individual tells the therapist the manifest content (the dream as it appears, usually including disguised unacceptable ideas) and the therapist tells the individual the latent content (repressed ideas that are more likely to appear in dreams than when awake) and this can help them provide insight about the dream, called catharsis.
In free association, the individual is encouraged to relax and say anything that comes to mind after being presented with a stimulus work. This is because the unconscious mind will be unable to keep check of the threatening unconscious thoughts, bringing the unconscious mind to the preconscious. Once vocalised, the therapist can interpret and explain

Question 101

What are thhe three parts of the personality?

Answer 101

The id is the primitive biological part of the personality, presenting in newborns and consisting of basic biological impulses. It is contained within the unconscious mind and operates according to the pleasure principle. The superego works on the morality principle and opposes the desires of the id to enforce moral restrictions. It develops in childhood through identification with a parent and internalises social norms of society. Finally, the ego, the executive of the personality, uses cognitive abilities to balance the desires of the id and the superego, working on the reality principle. It defends itself from id-superego struggles using various defence mechanisms

Question 102

What does failure to provide balance in the personality lead to?

Answer 102

Intrapsychic conflict

Question 103

Describe the five stages of Psychosexual development

Answer 103

It also assumes that there are five psychosexualstages through which humans develop and that failure to resolve any conflict in each stage can influence future behaviour. They include: oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. Each stage has a pleasure zone and a pleasure activity in order to be resolved. Failure to resolve a stage leads to fixation, where libido force remains stuck in that stage causing dysfunctional behaviour later in life

Question 104

What does fixation in the phallic stage lead to?

Answer 104

fixation in the phallic stage leads to the oedipus and electra complexes in boys and girls respectively. The oedipus complex is when boys develop incestuous feelings (deep emotional connection) toward their mother and have a murderous hatred for their father. Due to castration anxiety, they repress feelings for mother and identify with father, taking on gender roles and moral rules. In the electra phase, girls experience ‘penis envy’ as they desire their father’s freedom and hate their mother. However, this ‘envy’ becomes exhausted and soon replaced with the need to have a baby and identify with their mother. This may lead to difficulties forming intimate and sexual relationships later in life.

Question 105

Evaluate the psychodynamic approach

Answer 105

The approach places emphasis the importance of unconscious factors in determining behaviour.
This therefore suggests that the causes of our behaviour may exist unknown to us in our unconscious mind.
Freud’s theory provides unique insights into human behaviour-the idea of unconscious motivation has gained widespread support (Nisbett and Wilson), some evidence for oral anal stages also (Fisher and Greenberg).It draws attention to the importance of childhood experiences on later behaviour.
This remains a revolutionary advance in psychology.

Psychoanalytic therapy can be beneficial through release of psychic conflicts through insight, ‘catharsis’.
This was a huge shift in thinking towards not biological treatments for disorders such as depression, anxiety and stress. Techniques include; dream analysis, Rorschach tests, free association, parapraxes, transference analysis; what Freud called the ‘Royal Road to the unconscious’.
The approach does have useful applications especially in therapy. De Maat’s meta-analysis of psychotherapy efficacy showed significant improvements in symptoms both short and medium term.
Therapy is usually only considered appropriate for moderate conditions such as phobias or anxiety.
This is a strength as the approach has improved the quality of life of those suffering with mental conditions and raised the early reputation of psychology.

Freud’s theory lacks scientific validity.
His theory is largely derived from the study of adults with emotional disorders—an extremely unrepresentative sample. Also, as abnormal ases, they are not generalisable to the wider population.
It is based on case studies and techniques that are subjective and open to bias, such as Little Hans. Thus, it is unscientific as the ideas cannot be refuted and are, therefore, unfalsifiable. An example would be a traumatic event causing Intrapsychic conflict and abnormal behaviour but a defence mechanism may be hiding or masking it.
Some elements do have empirical support: (Nisbett and Wilson) and the oral and anal stages (Fisher and Greenberg) but the majority do not.
This is a weakness as the approach does not meet modern scientific standards of validity.

Question 106

What does the humanistic approach assume and what does it focus on?

Answer 106

This approach assumes that psychology should be concerned with human experiences, uniqueness, meaning, freedom and choice in the pursuit of personal growth and fulfilment.
It focuses on free will which is the notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external constraints. This means that we are active agents who have the ability to determine our own judgement.

Question 107

What are the hierarchy of needs?

Answer 107

Maslow believed that humans are motivated by needs beyond those of basic biological survival. He suggested that the fundamental of human nature is to grow and develop to achieve ‘self-actualization’ — our full potential. Thus, he created a hierarchy of needs ranging from basic ‘deficiency needs’ to higher level ‘growth needs’. These needs include: physiological needs, safety needs, belonging needs, self-esteem needs and personal growth or self-actualisation (which many struggle to reach due to psychological barriers). One needs to complete one need before moving on to the next. This theory suggests uniquely human motivational factors—higher level needs are a later evolutionary development of human species.

Question 108

What did Carl Rogers point out about ideal self?

Answer 108

Carl Rogers points out that individuals strive to achieve their ideal selves because they are motivated towards self-improvement. He felt that the humanistic approach concerned itself with explanations of health growth hence having a positive image of the human condition.

Question 109

What is self-actualisation in relation to congruence?

Answer 109

For self-actualisation to be achieved, an individual’s actual self-image (what an individual is actually like) needs to be broadly equivalent to their ideal self-image (what they would like others to see or themselves to be). This is known as a state of congruence and creates a sense of self-worth. Perceptions of inadequacy compared to an ideal self image can result in low self-worth and poor psychological health. This is known as incongruence.

Question 110

What improves self image according to Rogers

Answer 110

For self-actualisation to be achieved, an individual’s actual self-image (what an individual is actually like) needs to be broadly equivalent to their ideal self-image (what they would like others to see or themselves to be). This is known as a state of congruence and creates a sense of self-worth. Perceptions of inadequacy compared to an ideal self image can result in low self-worth and poor psychological health. This is known as incongruence.

Question 111

What did Rogers suggest in order to improve self-image?

Answer 111

In order to close the gap between actual and ideal self, Rogers developed client-centered therapy (CCT), an adaptation of Stephenson’s Q-sort assessment which involved sorting a series of cards with personal statements, where an effective therapist provides unconditional positive regard to an individual who failed to receive it. Such a supportive environment where the individual feels empowered allows them to decide their own strategy to self-actualisation. The whole person is studied in their individual context, taking an Idiographic approach rather than a nomothetic approach.

Question 112

Evaluate the humanistic approach

Answer 112

A strength of the humanistic approach is that it is less reductionist.
It rejects attempts to break up behaviour into smaller components.
While behaviourists explain human and animal learning in terms of simple stimulus-response connections, it emphasises choice (free will and responsibility which is largely ignored by the other approaches)
Having said that, reductionist approaches may be more scientific as they employ scientific methods to prove their theories.
This is a strength as it has general evidence to support its claims.

Another strength of the humanistic approach is that it is optimistic.
Humanistic psychologists have been praised for bringing the person back into psychology and promoting a positive image of the human condition.
While the psychodynamic approach saw humans as being slaves to their past and claims that we existed somewhere between ‘common happiness and absolute despair’. Contrastingly, this approach sells all people as basically good, free to work towards the achievement of their potential and in control of their lives
This is a strength as Humanistic psychology offers a refreshing and optimistic alternative to other approaches as it offers a positive view of the human condition.

This approach has less impact on mainstream psychology than the other approaches as it is not very objective.
The use of qualitative methods and data has been questioned. As the subject matter is individual experience (it takes an Idiographic approach), it cannot formulate general laws of behaviour as it is made up of a loose set of abstract ideas and not a comprehensive theory or law.
Due to vagueness of such terms such as ‘self-actualization’ and ‘self-worth’, little empirical research has been carried out on untestable concepts.
This is a weakness of the approach as it lacks scientific credibility and internal validity.

Question 113

Comparison points for behaviourism

Answer 113

Hard determinsm
Reductionist
Systematic desensitisation as treatment for phobias
Nomothetic approach
Nurture
Animal experiments; not very ethical
Scientific and controlled experiments which may lack external val

Question 114

Comparison point for Social Learning theory

Answer 114

Reciprocal determinism
Less reductionist
Film ratings for vulnerable ppl
Nomothetic approach
Nurture
Exposed children to violence
Scientific and controlled experiments which may lack external val

Question 115

Comparison points for cognitivism

Answer 115

Soft determinism
Machine reductionism
CBT for depression and OCD
Nomothetic laws but Idiographic case studies
Both nature and nurture
Consensual reception that sometimes included deception
Scientific and controlled experiments which may lack external val

Question 116

Comparison points for biological approach

Answer 116

Genetic determinism
Reductionist
Standard care–SSRIs and Antipsychotics
Nomothetic but Idiographic case studies
Nature
Drug trials involve deception
Scientific and controlled experiments which may lack causality

Question 117

Comparison points for psychodynamic

Answer 117

Psychic determinism
Holistic approach
Psychoanalysis as first talking therapy
Idiographic approach
Both nature and nurture
Consensual treatment
Based on subjective case studies so low rel

Question 118

Comparison points for humanistic approach

Answer 118

Free will
Holistic approach
CCt
Idiographic apprch
Both nature and nurture
Consensual treatment
Rejects scientific methods