Memory Flashcards
1
Q
What term describes the reappearance in consciousness of memories that were for some time not accessible? A- Lost memories B- recovered memories C-found memories D-Childhood memories
A
B- recovered memories
2
Q
What are Schooler et al (1997) 3 criteria for recovered memories?
A
1) Reality of event 2) reality of forgetting 3) reality of recovery
3
Q
What is false memory syndrome?
A
The systematic creation of memories of events that never occurred
4
Q
Which study aimed to examine false memories under a controlled paradigm?
A
Roediger and Mcdermott (1995)
5
Q
In the recall phase of false memories it was found that there was a ____ % rate of recalling an item that was on the list, but a ___% rate of recalling an item that was not on the list.
A
65% for true items, 40% for false items.
6
Q
The paradigm which describes how false memories are created is known as the: A-DRM paradigm, B-LTM paradigm, C-Working-Memory Paradigm, D-False memory paradigm
A
A-DRM paradigm
7
Q
In the recognition phase of Roediger and Mcdermott’s false memory experiment, there was a mean hit rate of ____% for true items, but a mean false alarm rate of ____% for critical lures.
A
86% for true items, 84% for critical lures.
8
Q
What is a critical lure?
A
A close semantic associate to the words on the studied list.
9
Q
In experiment 2, how did Roediger and Mcdermott change the lists? A- they made them longer B-they added more lists, C- they used less lists D- both A&B
A
D - both A&B
10
Q
Tulving (1985) in his remember/ know distinction, defined remember items as _____________________, and know items as ____________.
A
Remember = Items where the participants actually have a vivid memory for
Know = items which the participants are sure they were on the list but dont actually have a memory for hearing the word.
11
Q
Which of these criticisms did Freyd and Gleaves point out about the DRM paradigm theory and experiment? A- Words presented in lists are not technically events B- False memories for critical lures that were similar to lists is not the same as false memories for sexual abuse events C- Artificial lab studies cannot be generalised to real life events D- All of the above
A
D- All of the above
12
Q
In Loftus and Pickrell’s (1995) shopping mall study in which they studied false memories in children for real life events, how many out of the 24 children accepted the false memory?
A
7 out of the 24 children accepted it , and 6 out of the 7 maintained it when interviewed. (25%)
13
Q
What did Loftus and Pickrell find occurred when the children who accepted the false memories retold the story.
A
Their confidence and clarity increased with retelling.
14
Q
As well as events and words, Wade et al (2002), and Garry and Gerrie (2005) found that false memories can also occur for what? A- movie scenes, B- song lyrics C- photographs D- Locations.
A
C-photographs
15
Q
What do false memory studies show us about human memory?
A
That it is not as consistent as we thought - memories are mad up from many sources.
16
Q
Which study measured sleep learning using EEG activity and tested participants memory for encoding when asleep?
A
Simon and Emmons (1956)
17
Q
Studies into sleep learning ultimately concluded what about unconscious learning?
A
That we are unable to learn about external events whilst asleep/unconscious.
18
Q
In Levinsons (1965) anaesthesia study, ___ out of 10 participants produced full reports of what they heard whilst anaesthetized, _____ produced partial reports, and ____ had no recall at all.
A
4 out of 10 full report, 4 partial, 2 had no recall.
19
Q
Which is not a criticism of Levinson’s anaesthesia study? A- The study raises ethical issues B-There was a lack of control condition C- There was too small of a sample D- Participants were suggestible under hypnosis.
A
C- The sample size. Other criticisms were a lack of standardized measure for anaesthetic.
20
Q
Explicit memory requires __________, whereas implicit memory _________
A
explicit requires conscious recollection of prior events.
Implicit is revealed by completing tasks which do not require conscious reference to specific events.
21
Q
What are the 3 types of Explicit memory tasks?
A
Free recall, cued recall, recognition
22
Q
Which explicit memory task involves a participant being presented with a stimulus and asked if they have previously learnt the stimulus or not? A-recognition, B free recall, C-Cued recall, D-degraded picture naming
A
A- recognition
23
Q
Free recall involves participants attempting to remember target info ________ from the experimenter, whereas cued recall involves ________ from the experimenter.
A
Free = Without assistance , cued = with assistance.
24
Q
Which of these is a type of implicit memory task ? A- Word stem completion, B- Word fragment completion, C- degraded picture naming, D- All of the above.
A
D- All of the above
25
The study by _________ involved testing participants under varying levels of EEG, whilst the study from _______ involved inclusion and exclusion tests.
EEG = Iselin-Chaves et al ( 2005)
Inclusion and exclusion = Jacoby (1991)
26
In Iselin-Chaves (1991) study how many times were unconscious participants presented the two lists ? A- 5 times B-50 times C- 20 times D- 10 times
C- 20 times
27
The words used in the Iselin-Chaves study were of what language? A-french, B- english, C- spanish, D- german
A-french
28
Which EEG scale measures from 0-100, and represents a participants awakeness from asleep to fully awake ?
Bispectral index scale
29
In Jacoby (1991) study on process dissociation procedure, inclusion tests involved ______________, whilst exclusion tests involved ____________.
Inclusion = producing items from any source
Exclusion = only producing items that were not previously studied.
30
In Jacoby (1991) study, the equation for inclusion is _______. The equation for exclusion is _________
Inclusion = R+A(1-R)
Exclusion = A(1-R)
31
In the exclusion and inclusion equations, R stands for ________, and A stands for ___________.
R= conscious recollection = inclusion - exclusion
A = unconscious or automatic memory =exclusion/ (1-R)
32
Anaesthesia studies found that _______________________ for EXPLICIT tasks under complete anesthesia , but __________ for IMPLICIT tasks under light anesthesia.
No recall for explicit when completely anesthetized, but some recall for implict when lightly anesthetized
33
What does weapons focus theory (Loftus et al ) suggest?
The idea that arousal causes attention focusing so that only the central item is attended to ( i.e. the weapon)
34
Which is true of Chase and Ericssons (1981) study on improving encoding in participant S.F: A- Span encoding improved for the digits learnt by S.F, B- it was based on a chunking method C- S.F's letter span encoding also increased D- Both A&B
D- both A&B
35
What are Searleman and Hermann's (1994) four types of memory research?
Pragmatic, experimental, atheoretical, theoretical
36
Which type of memory research involves seeking ways to improve peoples lives, particularly abilities to learn and remember information. A- Pragmatic, B- Experimental, C- atheoretical D- theoretical
A-pragamatic
37
Which best describes experimental memory research? A-seeking ways to improve peoples lives, particularly abilities to learn and remember information B- Documenting the existence and nature of memory phenomena by systematically collecting observations C- Characterising memory intuitively and informally, focusing on phenomena rather than explaining anything D- Using research to form theories, models and metaphors which explain memory phenomena best
B- experimental research involves observation and documentation of memory phenomena
38
Which best describes atheoretical memory research? A-seeking ways to improve peoples lives, particularly abilities to learn and remember information B- Documenting the existence and nature of memory phenomena by systematically collecting observations C- Characterising memory intuitively and informally, focusing on phenomena rather than explaining anything D- Using research to form theories, models and metaphors which explain memory phenomena best
C- atheoretical research involves a more informal approach rather than providing theories to explain phenomena
39
Which ancient philosopher came up with mnemonic techniques such as the method of Loci?
Cicero
40
Which ancient philosopher came up with the atheoretical approach of laws of association?
Aristotle
41
During the dark ages, work on memory mainly involved creating rhymes and mnemonic devices, and was mostly A- theoretical, B-pragramtic, C- atheoretical D- experimental
B-pragmatic
42
What was Ebbinghaus (1885) work on memory called?
Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology
43
Ebbinghaus' work was both ________ and ___________, rather than _________.
it was experimental (hence) and atheoretical, but not theoretical.
44
Ebbinghaus' work on memory used similar principles to those used by_________.
Fechner
45
What was Ebbinghaus' fundamental unit of memory? A-3 - letter words, B- 3 numbers, C-nonsense syllables D- individual letters
C- nonsense syllables (used to dissociate semantics in learning)
46
Ebbinghaus' method of complete mastery involved measuring ______________, whilst his method of savings involved ___________.
Complete mastery = how long it took him to learn a list well enough so that he could recite the list perfectly, twice.
Savings = a measure of retention, how much less time it took to relearn a list.
47
What did Ebbinghaus method of savings show?
That re - encoding was much quicker than initial encoding.
48
True or false, ebbinghaus research showed that there was no maximum list length that could be learned given enough time.
True
49
What happened to the rate of learning to word lists longer than 7 according to Ebbinghaus' research?
It drastically increased in time taken to learn a list (quadrupled), and then gradually slowed down.
50
Encoding all of the information in one long session for multiple hours is known as _______________________, whereas encoding the information over a longer period of time, with multiple shorter sessions is called _____________________.
Mass encoding = all in one go.
Distributed encoding = multiple sessions.
51
Massed encoding is _________ but technically ________, distributed encoding is more _________, yet least _________.
Massed = inefficient, quicker
Distributed = more efficient, yet less satisfying
52
What are the 3 reasons why distributed encoding is more effective?
Encoding variability, deficient processing hypothesis, and study - phase retrieval.
53
Which reason supporting distributed encoding suggests that it is effective because we dont pay much attention to recently encountered things? A- DRM paradigm, B- Encoding variability C- Study phase retrieval D- Deficient processing hypothesis
D- Deficient processing hypothesis
54
Encoding variability suggests what?
That multiple learning in different contexts produces a wider variability of cues.
55
Study - phase retrieval is the idea that A-Multiple learning in slightly different contexts produces more available cues B-retrieval itself benefits memory because we retrieve the previous episode of learning each time we relearn, C-You don’t pay so much attention to recently encountered things D- none of the above
B- Study phase retrieval suggests that retrieval itself improves memory
56
Bower (1969) found encoding is 4x faster given ________.
Context- an appropriate network of meanings
57
What are the 4 theoretical structures that exist in memory? A-Frames, scripts, networks, and semantics B- Schemata, contexts, lists and numbers C- Schemata, contexts, frames and scripts, D- Lists, networks, semantics and rehearsal
C- Schemata, contexts, scripts and frames
58
Basford and Johnson (1972) found that both picture and title context prior to encoding has what effect?
It improves encoding
59
Brewer and Treyens(1981) found that ________________ objects from the room were recalled the most by participants after spending time in the room.
Schema expectant.
60
Smith and Graesser (1981) found that recall is more accurate for ___________ items, yet recognition is better for _________ items.
Recall for schema consistent,
Recognition for atypical/schema inconsitent
61
The Generation effect suggests what when creating mind maps / revising?
Memory for items and cues you have generated yourself are much better than items you have been presented with.
62
Which effect suggests that revising is best when you repeatedly test yourself?
The testing effect
63
What are the two main opposing stances on human memory?
Human memory is never truly forgotten and memories can be irretrievably lost.
64
______ % of psychologists say that we never truly forget anything - all learnt things can be recovered.
84%
65
What are the 3 reasons why many psychologists believe that nothing is ever truly forgotten?
Psychoanalysis, Hypnosis, and Brain stimulation.
66
Which form of recovering memories involves therapy which helps the uncovering of unpleasant or repressed memories for events which seem to have been lost? A-Hypnosis, B-psychoanalysis, C- brain stimulation C- Retrieval
B- Psychoanalysis
67
What is one main issue with the psychoanalysis used to recover lost memories?
Creation of false memories
68
What is one main issue with the use of hypnosis to recover lost memories?
Suggestibility - hypnosis makes people more suggestable to things.
69
In Penfield's work on brain stimulation, stimulation of what area of the brain caused people to report memory-like events? A- Parietal lobe , B- temporal lobe C- occipital lobe D- Frontal lobe
B Temporal lobe
70
On further examination of Penfield's original work on brain stimulation, Loftus and Loftus found that _________% actually reported a true memory.
Less than 3%
71
Which memory paradigm involves encoding 3 random letters, then counting backwards in 3's from a random number, then recalling the original letters? A- DRM paradigm, B-Loftus and Palmer paradigm, C-Working memory paradigm, D- Brown-Peterson paradigm
D- Brown-Peterson paradigm
72
Brown and Peterson found that info stored in STM _________ over time.
decays
73
Proactive interference occurs when ______________________. (hint: which one is INTERFERED with/lost)
Old learning causes forgetting of new material.
74
Retroactive interference occurs when _______________________.(hint: which one is INTERFERED with/lost)
New learning causes forgetting of older material.
75
In Loftus and Palmer's (1974) car crash study, what were the two different words used to test participants speed estimates? And which word gave a higher speed estimate?
Hit and smash, With smash having a higher speed estimate
76
In Loftus and Palmer's misinformation study, for the 'Hit' group _____ % of participants said there was smashed glass in the video, compared to _______% of the 'smashed' group
Hit group was 14% (7/50), smashed group was 32% (16/50)
77
Loftus and Palmer labelled the effect found in the car crash study as what?
The misinformation effect
78
In Loftus et al (1978) study what were the two type of road signs used in the testing question for participants ? A Traffic lights or stop sign, B- Traffic lights and yield sign C- Slow sign and stop sign, D- Yield sign and stop sign
D- yield sign and stop sign
79
Loftus et al (1978) found that the misinformation effect _________ with time (retrieval delay).
Increased or greatened
80
When using Mcloskey and Zaragoza's (1985) modified test procedure, it was found that performance in the misled group increased from ____% to _____%
37% to 72%
81
In Nelson's Standard Paired Associate Learning study (1978) despite 120 / 480 items form the learnt list not being recognised, the items were ________ at a faster rate than completely new items.
Relearnt
82
Nelson (1978) study showed that forgetting was a _______ rather than a complete _______.
Partial decay rather than complete deletion/trace destruction.
83
Luria's (1968) booking describing the case study of S was translated to what? A- the mind of a mnemonist, B- the mind of a rememberer, C - The mind of a believer , D- The mind of a goldfish
A the mind of a mnemonist
84
Case study S from Luria's book had what memory traits A- Equations memorised after only a few minutes, B- Perfect surprise recall after 15 years, C- Numbered grids of any size could be memorised given 4 seconds per item. D- All of the above
D all of the above
85
What strategies did case study S rely on when memorising?
Imagery, Synaesthesia and Method of Loci
86
Despite S's impressive memory, he had overall poor memory for ______. A- names, B- dates, C-faces, D- presidents
C- Faces
87
What term is given to the phenomena which means it doesn't become harder to learn new things despite much already being stored in memory?
Paradox of the expert
88
What is one agreed example of complete memory loss?
Amnesia due to dementia
89
Freudian Repression is defined as an ____________________________?
Active mechanism to prevent remembering
90
Wilkinson and Cargill's (1955) study used what type of sensitive material A- Images from childhood B- Content with oedipal/sexual imagery C- content about sexual abuse D- content about the participants love life?
B- Oedipal material
91
McCullough et al (1976) found that results from Wilkinson and Cargill's repression study could be explained as what?
Simply a self-presentation bias.
92
Levinger and Clark (1961)tested repression using a __________________task , and measured using a _____________ response.
Free association task, measured with Galvanic skin response
93
Levinger and Clark (1961) used what two types of words?
Emotional and neutral
94
Parkin et al (1982) replicated Levinger and Clark's study but added what A- a delay between encoding and retrieval, B- more arousal items C- more neutral items D- More time between each learnt word
A - A delay
95
Walker's (1958) action decrement theory says what about memories which elicit arousal?
Physiological arousal increases trace consolidation time, but may improve longer term encoding.
96
Anderson at el (2006) used what arousing material instead of individual words? A- videos, B - Audio recordings , C- whole sentences , D- Images
D- Images
97
Anderson et al (2006) found that memory for arousing stimuli was ________?
enhanced, improved etc
98
Finn and Roediger (2011) found that arousal stimuli enhances ________, but not _________.
enhances immediate recall, but not relearning
99
The weapons focus effect shows that arousal can increase memory for the ________ but not the ____________. A- Peripheral but not central, B- internal but not external, C Central but not peripheral, D- external but not internal
C- inc focus for central but not peripheral
100
Laboratory studies into the effect of arousal on memory do not conclude what?
A - Emotional influences on memory are quite broad ranging C- Arousal enhances memory for items and associates at long intervals C- Findings from arousal are never simple D- Arousal studies do show evidence for repression.
D- Unfortunately arousal studies do not provide evidence for repression.
101
Slamecka's (1968) study into part-list cueing found that which cueing condition impaired memory?
The condition where participants were cued with part of the list
102
What two memory phenomena explain the effects from Slamecka's part-list cueing study?
Interference and Strategy disruption
103
Retrieval induced forgetting found that memory is impaired for A- Unpracticed categories B- Practiced exemplars of practiced categories C-unpracticed exemplars of practiced categories D- Both A &C
C- impaired memory for unpracticed exemplars even in practiced categories
104
Directed forgetting uses 2 main methods, what are they?
List-method directed forgetting, Item-method directed forgetting
105
Item-Method directed forgetting is explained by __________ of 'TO BE REMEMBERED' items, so is therefore an effect during _______ rather than a failure of_________.
Selective rehearsal , an encoding effect rather than a failure in storage
106
List-Method directed forgetting is explained in terms of ____________.
Retrieval Inhibition
107
What are the 2 instructions used in direct suppression tasks ?
Think or No think
108
What are the 3 possible causes of direct suppression?
1)Generation of alternative associations
2)Inhibition of Cue target connection
3) direct inhibition of target
109
Which explanation of direct suppression is the most supported?
A- generation of alternative associations B-Direct inhibition of target C-Inhibition of cue target connection, D- None of these explanations were found true
B- Direct suppression of target
110
What are some practical applications of inhibition research?
Possible:
Directed forgetting in the Forget conditions and Active suppression in NO-think conditions may help explain repressed memories of sexual abuse
Inhibition applies to everyday life
Inhibition paradigms can be extended to real life events
111
Studies into arousal, inhibition and repression found that there is no ______________ but there was evidence for _________
No automatic suppression evidence, but evidence for Practical Active Repression
112
Rank the methods of retrieval in terms of most successful memory performamce
Cued Recall Free Recall Relearning Recognition
1. Relearning 2 Recognition 3. cued recall 4. free recall
113
The Generate-Recognise theory of Free Recall (Anderson and Bower,1972) involves what two Mnemonic strategies which generate associates , to improve recall?
Method of Loci and Pegword Method
114
Tulving & Thomson (1973) found _______ without _________.
A- Recognition without recall, B- Relearning without recognition C- Recall without relearning D- Recall without recognition
D-Recall without recognition
115
Tulving and Thomson (1973) found that recognition was difficult in the task used as all of the words were _____________.
Semantically similar/close semantic associates.
116
What does Tulving (1993) encoding specificity principle suggest?
Memory performance is best when cues present at retrieval best match the cues present at the time of encoding
117
The Encoding specificity principle emphasises the importance of what? A-time, B-Rehearsal C-Context D-Retrieval techniques
C- Context
118
Source monitoring (Johnson, Taylor & Raye 1977) suggests that people struggle to distinguish ________ and __________ events when it comes to judgements of ___________.
Internal and external, frequency judgements
119
Source Monitoring and Reality monitoring study the distinction of ___________ vs ___________ memories.
Real vs Imagined memories
120
Imagined memories may be confused with real memories by forgetting the ___________ of the memory. A- Source, B-content, C- semantic associate D- Prime
A-source
121
In Schooler et al (1986) study on reality monitoring and false memory, what 2 things may blur the distinction between real and imagined memories .
Time, and repeated thinking about the events.
122
In Schooler et al (1986) study on reality monitoring and false memory, participants correctly identified real memories ______% of the time, but incorrectly identified imagined memories _______% of the time
59% for real correct, 40% for incorrect imagined classification.
123
On the Ebbinghaus forgetting curve , the y axis is labelled as _________, whilst the x axis is labelled as _________. It shows how memory ________ over time.
Y axis = mean savings, x axis = retention interval. Decays/gets worse
123
Normal memory is the result of two processes, what are these?
Forgetting and reminiscence
123
Hypermnesia is described as a ______________. It occurs when forgetting is______, and reminiscence is _______.
A gain in memory over time, due to low forgetting and high reminiscence
124
Mulligan (2006) showed that hypermnesia is a result of increased __________.
A-rehearsal, B-time, C- retrieval effort D- cues
C-Retrieval effort
125
Scrivner and safer (1988) showed that a practical use of hypermnesia and repeated recall was
A - recovering traumatic memories, B- learning in school C- Helping tell stories D- Crime reports and eye-witness testimony
D- Crime reports
126
Kern et al(2002) found that hypermnesia has an even greater effect for what type of material?
Negative arousal/ emotional material
127
Lane et al found what issue with repeated testing?
Increased false memories
128
Godden and baddely (1975) used what two environments to test context dependant memory
A- On land and underground, B- on land and in sea, C on land and in the air (skydiving ) D- On land and in a helicopter
B- on land and in sea
129
Goodwin et al (1969) used what two states when studying state dependent memory.
Intoxicated and sober
130
Goodwin et al found that if you learn info whilst intoxicated, you are better at recalling the info when _________.
Intoxicated
131
Mood congruent memory suggests that we _____________
recall info that is congruent to our current state better than incongruent info
132
Mood congruent memory was much easier to find than _________________.
Mood dependent memory
133
Geiselman et al (1986) came up with what 4 techniques to form his Cognitive Interview Technique?
1) Mentally Reinstate the context of the event - key details ie mood, location, weather.
2) Report every detail - even ones that seem trivial and unimportant
3) Report the event in different temporal orders
4) Report the event from different perspectives of people
134
Davis et al (2006) found that the Cognitive Interview technique was much more effective when
A- You return to the scene of the crime B- You also report the criminals perspective C- you use a shortened version of the techniques (only 1 and 2) D- You use it with repeated testing
C- you use a shortened version
135
Ross (1989) found that changing our current mood can also change our memories on previous _________ as well as _________.
Attitudes and behaviour
136
Falsely remembered attitudes are an example of -___________, whilst falsely remembered behaviours are an example of__________.
Hindsight bias, cognitive dissonance
137
In Conway and Ross (1984) study on remembered abilities, after participating on a program to improve study skills, which ended up having no effect at all on study skills, participants rated their initial pre-course skills as ___________ than they actually were
A- The same B-worse C - slightly better D- much better
B- worse
138
What is autobiographical memory?
Memory for your own life
139
What does the cue word technique in autobiographical memory?
Given a word, recall one memory associated with that word, with date and place.
140
Rubin (1982) found what function when studying autobiographical memory with students? A- remembering function B- forgetting function C psychometric function
D value function
B-forgetting function
141
What are two issues with determining accuracy in autobiographical memory?
False memories and inaccuracy with dates which cause bias
142
Wagenaar's study on autobiographical memory found a standard forgetting function, but items will always be ____________
Recognised
143
Overall memory was best for what 4 types of events in Wagenaar's study?
Recent, salient emotional and pleasant.
144
In Wagenaar's study there was good memory for....... A-pleasant events, B- unpleasant self critical events, C- childhood events, D- Both A & B
D- Both A & B
145
Talarico et al (2014) found that ___________ of emotion is more important for memory than_________
Intensity, Valence
146
Barclay and Wellman found that over time people are more susceptable to accepting __________
False Autobiographical Memory
147
Misra et al (2018) found that autobiographical memories for daily lives is A- better than long term autobiographical memory B- The same as long term autobiographical memory C- Very poor D- none of the above
C- very poor
148
What term did Freud label to the phenomena that we have little memory for years in early life?
Infantile Amnesia
149
At what age to children start remembering? And what type of events are better remembered (Usher and Neisser)
Age of 3 and Negative events
150
In Usher and Niesser's childhood memory study ______% of the children's memories were confirmed by parents, whereas ______% clashed with parents recollections.
61% verified, 22% clash
151
Eacott and Crawley managed to locate children's first memories between ______ and ______.
Between 2 years and 2 years and 3 months
152
Rubin et al found in 70 year olds, a reminiscence peak in their _____, a dip in their _____ and then a rise in recent years.
Peak in 20's, dip in 40's.
153
What does Conway's SMS stand for?
Self Memory System
