Memory

Question 1

Features of the Sensory Memory, Short Term Memory & Long Term Memory

Answer 1

Sensory Register:
Coding = Modality Specific
Capacity = Unlimited
Duration = Limited – less than 0.5 seconds

Short Term Memory:
Coding = Acoustic
Capacity = 5-9 items
Duration = Limited - 18-30 seconds

Long Term Memory:
Coding = Semantic
Capacity = Unlimited
Duration = lifetime

Question 2

Define coding

Answer 2

the way in which information is stored into memory, for example, the short-term memory codes acoustically

Question 3

BADDELEY

Answer 3

Aim: To investigate how we code information in our STM.
Procedure: Showed participants lists of words in 4 categories
(1) Acoustically similar (cat, sat, mat, bat)
(2) Acoustically dissimilar (tree, house, flour)
(3) Semantically similar (kip, doze, nap, sleep)
(4) Semantically dissimilar (cake, book, plane)
Immediately after each presentation, participants were asked to recall the lists in the CORRECT ORDER.
Findings:
More mistakes made on the acoustically similar list.
Conclusion:
Suggests STM mainly codes information acoustically.

Aim: To investigate how we code information in our LTM.
Procedure: Showed participants lists of words in 4 categories
(1) Acoustically similar (cat, sat, mat, bat)
(2) Acoustically dissimilar (tree, house, flour)
(3) Semantically similar (kip, doze, nap, sleep)
(4) Semantically dissimilar (cake, book, plane)
20 minutes after each presentation, participants were asked to recall the lists in the CORRECT ORDER.
Findings:
More mistakes made on the semantically similar list.
Conclusion:
Suggests LTM mainly codes information semantically.

Question 4

Define capacity

Answer 4

The amount of information that can be held in the memory for example short term memory is limited to 9-5 items.

Question 5

MILLER

Answer 5

Aim: To investigate the capacity of the STM

Procedure:
He used “the digit span technique“. Participants were given strings of unrelated digits that increased by one digit every time. The participant’s digit span was measured until the point where they could no longer recall the digits in the correct sequence.

Findings:
Participants could recall 5-9 items, more could be recalled if items were ‘chunked’. E.g. participants can remember 5 words just as well as 5 letters.

Conclusion:
Capacity of STM is limited. Our digit span can be increased by putting several items into a meaningful chunk.

Question 6

Define duration

Answer 6

The length of time information can be held in the memory for example, the duration of STM is 18-30 seconds

Question 7

PETERSON AND PETERSON

Answer 7

Aim: To investigate the duration of the STM

Sample: 24 Undergraduate students

Procedure: Participants were briefly presented with a consonant trigram to remember. They were then given a three digit number and asked to count backwards from this number to prevent rehearsal. They were stopped at different intervals and asked to recall the consonant trigram.

Findings:
After 3 seconds only 80% recalled the trigram correctly. After 18 seconds fewer than 10% recalled correctly.

Conclusion:
information in the STM lasts 18 – 30 seconds, unless it is rehearsed.

Question 8

BAHRICK

Answer 8

Aim: To investigate the duration of the LTM

Procedure:
Bahrick tested 392 American high school graduates aged between 17 and 74 on their memory of their former classmates. In Condition 1 they had to recall the names of classmates using a photo yearbook, in condition 2 they had to recall the names of their class with no photo cue.

Findings:
In condition one, 70% of participants recalled accurately after 48 years.
In condition two, 30% of participants recalled accurately after 48 years

Conclusion:
This shows certain types of information can potentially last a lifetime, especially with the correct cues.

Question 9

Coding, Capacity & Duration AO3

Answer 9

The research into (duration in the STM) lacks mundane realism,
as the task of (recalling consonant trigrams) is artificial.
Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings (that information lasts 18-30 seconds) to real life examples of the duration of STM, as the research does not reflect most real life memory activities where what we are trying to remember is meaningful.
Thus lowering the external validity of the research into (the duration of STM).

The research into (coding of the LTM) has high control over extraneous variables
as it was carried out in a controlled setting (lab), for example (the lists of words would be matched on their difficulty and each words would be shown to participants for the same amount of time).
This means that we are more likely to establish cause and effect between the IV (the list of words) and the DV (accurate recall).
Therefore increasing the internal validity of the research into (the coding of the LTM).

Research into the (capacity of STM) is praised for having high reliability.
This is because the research was carried out in a controlled environment (lab),
therefore the research could be repeated in the same conditions (for example, the same standardised instructions, the same digits given to participants and shown for the same amount of time),
in order to check for consistent results in to (the capacity of STM).

Bahrick’s research into duration in the LTM is high in mundane realism, as the research assessed real life memories of the individual’s old classmates. This is a strength because it is something you might find yourself doing in everyday life, for example, searching for an old friend on social media. Therefore it may be easier to generalise the research findings of the duration of LTM to other real life applications, increasing the external validity of the research in to the duration of LTM.

However, critics may argue that the research into duration of LTM has low control over extraneous variables, as the research did not take place in a controlled environment. For example, how much contact the participants had with classmates after leaving school was not controlled. Therefore, cause and effect cannot be clearly established between the IV (length of time passed) and the DV (accurate recall of classmates) so firm conclusions cannot be drawn on the duration of LTM, reducing the internal validity of the research findings.

Question 10

Multi-store model of memory

Answer 10

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multi-store model describes how information flows through memory. It is a structural model stating that Sensory, Short Term Memory (STM) and Long Term Memory (LTM) are separate unitary stores, and that information flows through the system in a linear way.

• A stimulus from the environment will pass in to the sensory register. This part of memory has several stores and coding in each store is modality specific. The two main stores are echoic and iconic
• Information in the sensory register has a duration of less than a second. The capacity of the sensory register is high.
• Information passes from the sensory register to the STM only if attention is paid to it. If it is not being paid attention to, the information decays
• STM is a limited capacity store, the capacity of information is 5-9 items. Information in the STM is coded acoustically and the duration of information is 18-30 seconds, unless it is rehearsed.
• If maintenance rehearsal occurs it can increase the length of time the information is held in STM. If the information is rehearsed enough, it will pass to the LTM.
• LTM is a potentially permanent store for information that has been rehearsed for a prolonged time. Psychologists believe that the capacity is potentially unlimited and that information can last a lifetime in the LTM. The LTM codes information semantically.
• To recall information, it has to be transferred from LTM to STM, in a process called retrieval.

Question 11

Multi-Store Model of Memory AO3

Answer 11

Research to support Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory comes from a case study of Clive Wearing. He suffers from amnesia in which he
cannot transfer information from his STM to his LTM, this is evident as when his wife re-enters the room after leaving just seconds before, he greets her as if it is the first
time he has seen her in years. This supports the multi-store model of memory BECAUSE it shows that STM and LTM are separate stores and that information must
flow through in a linear way, first to STM then LTM.

Discussion: However, critics would argue that the case study to support the MSM is flawed, as it has low population validity. The research was a case study of just one person, Clive Wearing, who has an unusual illness involving damage to the brain. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings to the wider population as their memory may operate differently, thus limiting the support that the research provides for the multistore model of memory.

Moreover, it is suggested that the MSM could be too simplistic in stating that STM and LTM are unitary stores. For example, research in to the STM conducted on patient KF, who suffered from amnesia, found that KF’s recall in STM for digits was very poor when the digits were read aloud to him, but recall was much better when KF could read the digits himself. This suggests that there must be different stores within the STM, one to process visual and one to process auditory information, casting doubt on the theories assumption that the STM is unitary.

Question 12

Types of LONG TERM MEMORY

Answer 12

Procedural memory (LTM) :
responsible for knowing how to do things, i.e. memory of motor skills, such as riding a bike.
Procedural memories are non-declarative, they do not involve conscious thought
The area of the brain responsible for procedural long-term memories is the Cerebellum and Motor Cortex.

Semantic memory (LTM) – ‘Knowing that’
responsible for storing knowledge about the world. For example, knowledge about the meaning of words/ general knowledge
Semantic memories are declarative, they do not involve conscious thought. not ‘time stamped’
The brain area responsible for semantic long-term memories is the Temporal Lobe.

Episodic memory (LTM)
responsible for storing information about events that we have experienced in our lives at a specific time, for example our first day of school.
Episodic memories involve conscious thought and they are declarative. ‘time stamped’
The brain area responsible for episodic long-term memories is the Hippocampus.

Question 13

Types of LTM AO3

Answer 13

The research into the different types of LTM, such as that described above, can be praised as it uses scientific methods. Objective and empirical techniques such as brain scans, which are used in order to identify the different parts of the brain that become active when completing different types of LTM tasks, for example the cerebellum and motor cortex being active when carrying a procedural task. Therefore, it could be argued that this increases the overall internal validity of the research into types of long term memory, thus raising Psychology’s scientific status.

To further evaluate the different types of long term memory, it has real life evidence from a case study of Clive Wearing. He suffers from amnesia in which his episodic memory was damaged as he could not remember some events from his past, for example his musical education. However, Clive’s procedural memory was still working as he can remember how to play the piano. Therefore if only certain areas of his LTM are damaged it supports that there are different types of long term memory.

However, this research to support can be criticised as it has low population validity. This is because the research was a case study, using only Clive as a participant who suffers from an unusual illness involving damage to the brain. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings of the different types of LTM to the wider population as their LTM may operate differently, thus limiting the support that the research provides for the different types of LTM.

Question 14

Working memory model

Answer 14

Baddeley and Hitch proposed the Working Memory Model as an explanation of how the STM works. They proposed that the STM was not a unitary store, but a number of different stores, which are all connected but work independently.

The central executive is an attentional process that monitors incoming data and DECIDES what needs to be done and when and DELEGATES tasks accordingly to the slave systems, it can code any type of information.
The central executive keeps any eye on what is happening in the slave systems and takes over the most DEMANDING task where necessary. Any task that is new/requires concentration will overload the central executive as it has a very limited capacity.

AUDITORY information is passed from the CE to the phonological loop.
Baddeley further subdivided the PL into 2 parts;
THE PHONOLOGICAL STORE – which stores the words we hear, like an inner ear.
THE ARTICULATORY LOOP – silently repeats words that are seen or heard, to keep them in memory, like an inner voice.
The PL has a LIMITED CAPACITY and CODES ACCOUSTICALLY

VISUAL information is passed from the CE to the Visual-spatial sketchpad, like an inner eye.
It is responsible for setting up mental images and is what you use if you have to plan a spatial task. It TEMPORARILY stores VISUAL info and SPATIAL information.
The visual cache – which stores visual data.
The inner scribe – which records the arrangement of objects in the visual field.
The VSS has a LIMITED CAPACITY (3-4 objects) and CODES VISUALLY

The episodic buffer is a general store that collects and combines information from the CE, PL and VSS to record an event. The EB transfers information to the LTM and is used to retrieve information from the LTM to the STM. The EB has a LIMITED CAPACITY (4 chunks) and can CODE ANY TYPE of information

Question 15

Working Memory Model AO3

Answer 15

Research to support the WMM was conducted by Shallice and Warrington (1970) on patient KF, who suffered with amnesia. They found that KF’s recall in STM for digits was very poor when the digits were read aloud to him, but recall was much better when KF could read the digits himself. This supports the WMM BECAUSE it suggests that there must be different stores within the STM, one to process visual information (VSS) and one to process auditory information (PL), as the PL was damaged but the VVS intact.

However, critics would argue that the case study to support the WMM is flawed, as it has low population validity. The research was a case study of just one person, patient KF, who has an unusual illness involving damage to the brain. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings to the wider population as their STM may operate differently, thus limiting the support that the research provides for the working memory model of memory.

Studies of dual task performance support the notion that there are separate components within the STM and that they have a limited capacity. For example, Baddeley et al (1975) found that participants had more difficulty when performing two visual tasks at the same time (using a pointer to track a light moving around a screen and imagining a capital letter ‘F’ and mentally moving the letter) than when performing one of the visual tasks alone or one of the visual tasks with a verbal task (such as saying ‘the’ repeatedly). This supports the WMM assumptions BECAUSE it suggests that both visual tasks are competing for limited capacity of the same slave system (VSS) whereas when doing a verbal and visual task simultaneously, they are delegated to separate slave systems (VSS and PL) and performance is not reduced as there is no competition for capacity. Therefore, the credibility of the WMM as a model of memory is increased.

Question 16

Interference theory

Answer 16

Interference theory suggests that forgetting occurs due to two lots of information, coded at different times becoming confused in the LTM, one memory disrupts the ability to recall another memory. This is most likely to occur when the info is similar.

In proactive interference, forgetting occurs when past information stored disrupts the recall of new/recent information stored, for example the memory of an old phone number means you FORGET your new phone number.

In retroactive interference, forgetting occurs when recent information stored disrupts the recall of past information stored, for example, the memory of a new car registration number means you FORGET your previous registration.

Question 17

Interference theory AO3

Answer 17

Research to support interference theory as an explanation for forgetting was conducted by McGeoch & McDonald, who gave participants a list of 10 words to learn (List A). Participants had to learn this list of 10 words until they could remember them with 100% accuracy. Participants then had to learn a second list of words (List B). Participants were then asked to recall List A. It was found that if List B was a list of similar meaning words (synonyms) to List A recall was poor (12%), however, if the words in List B were different to List A recall was higher (26%). This supports the interference theory as an explanation for forgetting BECAUSE it demonstrates that interference is strongest the more similar the items are, which is what the theory predicts.

A strength of interference as an explanation for forgetting is that much of the research, such as McGeoch and McDonald is high in reliability. It is conducted in a controlled, lab setting and therefore can be repeated in the same conditions for example give each participant the same time to learn the wordlist in order to gain consistent results into the effects of interference on forgetting. Think Further: Interference is one of the most consistently demonstrated findings in the whole of Psychology, with most studies showing that both types of interference are very likely to be common ways that we forget information in the LTM. This therefore strengthens the support the research provides for interference theory as an explanation of forgetting.

However, critics would argue that there is a much greater chance of interference demonstrated in research studies than in real life situations, this is due to the fact that the research lacks mundane realism. Artificial tasks such as learning lists of words are often used. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings to real life examples of forgetting, as the research does not reflect what we would try to remember in everyday life such as birthdays, people’s faces etc., maybe these memories are less likely to be contaminated by interference as they are more meaningful to us. Thus limiting the support the research provides for interference as an explanation for forgetting.

Question 18

Retrieval Failure due to absence of cues

Answer 18

Retrieval failure due to absence of cues suggests that forgetting occurs when information is still in the LTM, but can’t be accessed due to a lack of memory cues.

One type of retrieval failure is context dependent forgetting, in which forgetting occurs due to a lack of external cues to trigger recall because the environment is different at recall to when the information was coded. For example, a person may forget information when sitting an exam in a different classroom which they learned the information.

Another type of retrieval failure is state dependent forgetting, in which forgetting occurs due to a lack of internal cues to trigger recall because a person’s internal physical and/or emotional state is different at recall to when the information was coded. For example, a person may forget a dance routine on stage because when they learned the routine they may have been calm, but on stage they are anxious.

Question 19

Retrieval Failure due to absence of cues AO3

Answer 19

Research to support context-dependent forgetting was conducted by Godden & Baddeley. Scuba divers were given a list of words to learn either on land or under water. They were then asked to recall the list in either the same setting they learned, or the opposite. It was found that the participants were more likely to forget the words if tested in the opposite location to where they had learned the words. This gives support to context dependent forgetting BECAUSE it demonstrates that when there is a lack of external memory cues, forgetting is more likely.

Research to support state-dependent forgetting was conducted by Goodwin et al. Male volunteers were asked to learn a list of words when either drunk or sober. They were then asked to recall the words, 24 hours later, in either same state or opposite state. It was found that participants were more likely to forget the words if tested in the opposite state to which they had learned the words. This gives support to state dependent forgetting BECAUSE it demonstrates that when there is a lack of internal memory cues, forgetting is more likely.

However, it could be argued that the research into retrieval failure due to an absence of cues, such as those described above lacks mundane realism. This is because artificial tasks, such as learning lists of words are often used. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings to every day cases of forgetting, as in real life we may be learning much more complex information, such as psychological theories, that may not be as easily accessed with an internal or external cue. Therefore, reducing the external validity of the research and questioning retrieval failure due to an absence of cues as an explanation for forgetting.

Question 20

LEADING QUESTIONS

Answer 20

A leading question is a question that wrongly implies something, and can therefore affect the accuracy of EWT. Such as ‘what colour was the youth’s jacket?’ implies the perpetrator was a youth. This affects the accuracy of EWT as the info implied in the question contaminates witnesses memory and therefore, they recall inaccurate info

Loftus and Palmer
Aim: To investigate whether the phrasing of a question can affect participants’ memory of an event.

Method: Lab experiment

Sample: 45 American students (split into 5 groups of 9)

Procedure:
Participants were shown a video of a car crash and each group was asked one of 5 critical questions: (IV)
“About how fast were the cars travelling when they **** each other?”
Smashed, hit, collided, bumped or contacted.
Loftus and Palmer measured participants’ speed estimates in mph (DV)

Findings: They found participants guessed a higher mean speed when they had ‘smashed’ (40.8mph) compared to contacted (31.8mph).

Conclusion: The phrasing of a question can influence a participant’s memory of an event

Question 21

LEADING QUESTIONS AO3

Answer 21

A strength of the research into the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of EWT is that it has practical applications; the notion that leading questions can affect the accuracy of EWT has led to improvements in the legal system. For example, police officers need to be very careful about how they phrase their questions when interviewing witnesses, and not use leading questions which has led to the development of COGNITIVE INTERVIEW. Therefore, the research in to how leading questions affect the accuracy of EWT is an important part of applied psychology BECAUSE it could lead to more accurate testimonies and improve the lives of people affected by crime.

Moreover, also questioning the external validity of the research is the issue that the research in to how leading questions affect the accuracy of EWT also often lacks ecological validity. Loftus and Palmer conducted their research in an artificial environment (laboratory). Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings to real life cases of how leading questions affect the accuracy of EWT BECAUSE in real life an individual may be less influenced by the leading question due to the fact that there may be consequences of their answer, (the conviction of a person) unlike in the artificial lab setting. Again, this lowers the external validity of the research into the effects of leading questions on the accuracy of EWT.

Despite potentially lacking external validity, the research in to the effects of leading questions on the accuracy of EWT can be praised for having high internal validity. The research into misleading information has high control over extraneous variables as it was carried out in a controlled lab setting. For example, the participants would have watched the same video of the car crash and been given the same standardised instructions. Therefore you can aim to establish a cause and effect relationship between the IV (the different verbs) and DV (speed estimates), increasing the internal validity of the research into the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of EWT.

Question 22

POST EVENT DISCUSSION

Answer 22

where witnesses of an event discuss their accounts with each other, affecting accuracy of EWT in 2 ways:

Memory contamination
when co witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other, their EWT may become altered or distorted. this is because they combine info from other witnesses with their own memories suggesting that their memories of event changed because of PED.

Memory conformity
witnesses go along with each other either to win social approval or because they believe they are wrong and the other witness is right. however unlike memory contamination the memory remains unchanged, but accuracy of recall has been affected.

Question 23

POST EVENT DISCUSSION AO3

Answer 23

Research to support post event discussion affecting the accuracy of eye-witness testimony was conducted by Skagerberg and Wright. They showed participants two versions of a film clip of a mugging, one in which a mugger’s hair was dark brown and in the other the mugger’s hair was light brown. The participants discussed the clips in pairs, each having seen different versions. It was found that often they did not report what they had heard from their co-witness, but rather it was a ‘blend’ of the two suggesting the mugger had ‘medium brown hair’ rather than dark or light. Therefore, this supports post-event discussion affecting the accuracy of EWT BECAUSE it supports that memory contamination during post-event discussion does occur, distorting the witness’ EWT rather than just conforming to their co-witness’ response.

However, much of the research investigating post event discussion and its effect on the accuracy of EWT may be affected by demand characteristics. This is because the research is conducted in a controlled environment (lab) with unrealistic tasks such as watching video clips of crimes. Research has found that participants usually want to be helpful and not let the researcher down, so it is possible that participants from the research are able to pick up on clues from the task and the experimenter and change their responses to fit the aims of the research, for example, changing their response to match that of their co-witness after discussing the clip. This would lower the internal validity of research investigating post-event discussion as the effects of discussing a crime on the accuracy of eye-witness testimony are not being accurately measured.

Question 24

ANXIETY

Answer 24

Johnson and Scott

Aim: To investigate the effects of anxiety on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
Method: Laboratory experiment

Procedure:
* Participants were placed in one of two conditions either a high anxiety, ‘weapon focus’ condition or low anxiety condition. (IV)
* Participants were told to wait outside a room before the experiment began.
* In the high anxiety, ‘weapon focus’ condition participants heard an argument and the sound of breaking glass from within the room, and a man walked out of the room carrying a knife covered with blood.
* The low anxiety condition heard the argument from within the room before a man walked out with grease on their hands and a pen.
* Participants then had to identify the person who left the room from 50 photographs. (DV)

Findings:
Found 49% accuracy for the low anxiety condition compared to 33% in the high anxiety ‘weapon focus’ condition.

Conclusion: Anxiety caused ‘weapon focus’ as the witness concentrates on the weapon not the person because of the fear of the situation, reducing accuracy of recall.

Question 25

Anxiety AO3

Answer 25

Research conducted into a real life example of the effects of anxiety on the accuracy of EWT by Christianson and Hubinette contradicts Johnson and Scott’s findings. They interviewed 58 real life witnesses of a bank robbery. Some had been directly threatened (bank teller- high anxiety) and others were bystanders (customers – low anxiety). It was found that those who had been directly threatened had significantly better memories than the bystanders. Therefore, contradicting the idea that anxiety reduces the accuracy of EWT, and demonstrating that anxiety can in fact increase the accuracy of EWT.

However, a criticism of Christianson and Hubinette’s research is that they interviewed their participants several months after the event (four to 15 months). The researchers therefore had no control over what happened to their participants in the intervening time. For example, participants who witnessed the crime may have spoken to each other about the event (post-event discussion). The effects of anxiety may have been overwhelmed by these other factors, making it impossible to assess the effects of anxiety on eye witness testimony by the time the participants were interviewed. Therefore, this reduces the validity of Christianson and Hubinette’s findings on the impact of anxiety on EWT.

To evaluate anxiety as a factor affecting the accuracy of EWT the Yerkes-Dodson Law can be used. This proposes that anxiety and the accuracy of EWT is not a simple relationship. Different levels of anxiety affect the accuracy of EWT. Too little or too much anxiety would result in poor EWT recall, however, if you reach an optimum level of anxiety, somewhere in the middle of these two points, the accuracy of EWT is high. This explains the differences in results between Johnson and Scott and Christianson and Hubinette’s research. It may be suggested that the ppts in Christianson and Hubinette’s were at an optimum level of anxiety, which resulted in more accurate EWT. Whereas the participants in Johnson and Scott’s study may have not been as anxious due to it being an experiment, resulting in less accurate EWT. Therefore, this resolves the contradiction and validates that anxiety does affect EWT.

Question 26

Standard interview vs Cognitive interview

Answer 26

standard - closed direct Qs, often interrupted, less retrieval paths

cognitive- open ended Qs, not interrupted, more retrieval paths, takes longer, requires specialist training

Question 27

Improving accuracy of EWT – The cognitive interview

Answer 27

Fisher and Geiselman (1992) developed the cognitive interview, it is a technique used by police to interview witnesses after they have seen a crime or accident to help facilitate the most accurate and detailed memory possible, lots of ‘open’ questions are asked where the witness is not interrupted and free to expand on their own answers.

Recall Everything:
The witness is asked to report all details of the event even if it seems trivial, this may improve the accuracy of EWT because it might act as a trigger to a memory.
(start from the beginning, what happened morning of robbery?)

Context reinstatement :
The witness is asked to mentally place themselves back at the scene of the event and imagine the environment, such as the weather and what they could see, and their emotions. This could improve the accuracy of EWT because it may act as a trigger to a memory
(Close your eyes… What do you see/ what was x wearing?)

Recall in reverse:
The witness is asked to report what happened in a different chronological order, for example from the end of the crime to the start. This is said to improve the accuracy of EWT as it may prevent witnesses reporting what they expected to happen (schema) rather than what actually happened. Moreover, it also prevents dishonesty, as it is harder to lie when having to reverse a story.
(tell us what happened from when you entered bank)

Recall from changed perspective:
The witness is asked to recall the incident from another person’s perspective who witnessed the crime e.g. another witness or the perpetrator. This is said to improve the accuracy of EWT as it may prevent witnesses reporting what they expected to happen
(Imagine you’re the bank robber. What do you see?)

Question 28

The cognitive interview AO3

Answer 28

Research to support the effectiveness of the cognitive interview in improving the accuracy of EWT was conducted by Kohnken et al (1999). They used a meta-analysis of 55 studies comparing cognitive interview and standard interviews. They reported that Cl had an increase of 41% in accurate information compared to the standard interview. Only four studies showed no difference amongst the type of interviews. This support that the cognitive interview is an effective technique in improving the accuracy of EWT because it helps witnesses to recall information that is stored in memory but not easily accessible.

However, Kohnken et al (1999) also suggests that although more information is remembered compared to the standard interview (81%), often more incorrect items are also recalled, with a 61% increase of incorrect information reported in a cognitive interview, compared to a standard interview. This is called false positives. This is a weakness when using the Cl as despite seeming like more information has been collected, if this is incorrect it could lead to false imprisonments, and wasting police time, leading to damage to the economy. This reduces the effectiveness of the cognitive interview in improving the accuracy of EWT.
THINK FURTHER: This could in turn have a negative effect on the economy, false imprisonment.

A further weakness of the cognitive interview is that not all techniques in the cognitive interview are equally as effective. Milne and Bull (2002) found that each of the four techniques used alone produced more information than the standard interview. But they also found that using a combination of report everything and context reinstatement produced better recall than any of the other elements. This is a weakness because it may mean that the CI is not used effectively, and only certain aspects of Cl is useful in producing accurate recall thus limiting the effectiveness of the CI in improving the accuracy of EWT.