Issues & Debates

Question 1

Universality

Answer 1

This is the idea that conclusions drawn from research can be applied to everybody, regardless of time period, gender or culture.

For example, believing that some behaviours are the same for all genders.

Question 2

Gender Bias

Answer 2

When psychological research offers a view that does not represent the experience and behaviour of either men or women.

Feminist psychologists argue that psychology has been built on the biased research of male psychologists and has been shaped to uphold male superiority. There are three major types of gender bias all of which limit Universality.

Question 3

Androcentrism

Answer 3

Research that is based only on males, then it is used as the standard or expected norm for both sexes.

If our understanding of what is ‘normal’ behaviour comes from male only samples, then any behaviour that deviates form this is seen as abnormal or inferior. This leads to female behaviour being misunderstood or pathologised.

For example, research in to conformity by Asch was conducted on a sample of males and then generalised to both sexes, therefore if females conformed more than 37% of the time then they may have been seen as abnormal.

Question 4

Beta bias

Answer 4

Research misrepresent behaviour as they ignore or minimise the differences between males and females. Therefore important aspects of female experience are ignored, so limits any conclusions drawn.

This often occurs when female participants are not included in a sample and it is assumed the findings can apply equally to both sexes.

For example, the fight-or-flight response has been described as universal but much of the early research was conducted on male animals.

Question 5

Alpha bias

Answer 5

Research misrepresent behaviours as it exaggerates differences between males and females, serving to reinforce gender stereotypes and usually devalue women as women are often not seen as ‘the norm’.

For example, research on relationships has shown that males seek a partner that is young and attractive whereas females seek a man with resources, reinforcing these gender stereotypes.

Question 6

Gender Bias AO3

Answer 6

Alpha bias research such as evolutionary psychology promotes inappropriate stereotypes as findings suggest that females are dependent on males which can lead to feelings of inferiority and promote discrimination. Evolutionary psychology emphasises any gender differences are innate, due to genetics, which gives a biological justification for gender bias within society. Therefore, gender bias within research can provide a scientific reasoning to deny women opportunities within employment and can validate discrimination which can impact the economy and female’s life prospects.

However, by arguing that males and females should be studied differently emphasises there are gender differences, so universality is not possible and bias cannot be avoided. It is impossible to look at research through completely objective eyes as we all have a gender. However, researchers should take gender bias into consideration when conducting research. For example, it may be that Milgram only studied male participants as this was relevant to his aim of understanding the behaviour of Nazi soldiers (who would have all been male). This recognition is important in ensuring the effects of gender bias are minimised when conducting psychological research and generalising theories of behaviour to both genders.

8 marker:
Gender bias is…
if gender bias is an issue
universality not possible- define
alpha bias
beta bias (16 marker)

Question 7

Culture bias

Answer 7

When psychological studies ignore cultural difference assuming that their findings can be generalised globally.
However, much research has been conducted in Western universities meaning that the results are really only applicable to that culture.
Some bias researchers have assumed that their culture is the norm.

Question 8

Ethnocentrism

Answer 8

The assumption that one ethnic group/culture is superior to another, or to all ethnic groups, and emphasizing the importance of one’s own culture. This leads to a belief that the behaviours of their ethnic group/culture is the norm and others are seen as abnormal or strange which can lead to prejudice and discrimination.
For example, several researchers have conducted studies on IQ and have identified that those from African-Carribean backgrounds score an average of 15 points lower on IQ tests than Caucasians.

Question 9

Cultural Relativism

Answer 9

This is the appreciation that behaviour’s vary between cultures and that there is no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ behaviour. It is important to consider individuals behaviour within their culture before making a judgement.
This is because, social norms are culturally relative as what is considered acceptable in one culture may be unacceptable elsewhere.
For example, when defining abnormality it should be appreciated that what is seen as abnormal in one culture, may not be deemed abnormal in another.

Question 10

Culture bias AO3

Answer 10

Research into IQ tests provides a clear example of ethnocentric bias. This is because IQ tests have been developed and tested in the western world, based on western views of intelligence, so are not suitable for other cultures. These IQ tests have been misused to reinforce superiority of the Western culture and has led to discrimination and prejudice in immigration policy and the sterilising of individuals who do not meet the expectation of western IQ. However, research has shown that when using culturally relative IQ tests cultural differences in scores do not exist therefore showing clear culture bias with the tool and the damaging consequences of such ethnocentrism/ culture bias.

Much research within psychology can be criticized for lacking cultural relativism, for example when defining abnormality. Deviation from social norms is criticised for lacking cultural relativism as different cultures have different social norms and expectations of behaviour. For example, messages sent from spirits could be a symptom of Schizophrenia in a western culture but could be classed as a spiritual gift in non-western cultures. Therefore, due to culture bias, it may not be appropriate to use Western diagnostical manuals to diagnose mental health conditions in non-western cultures.

8 marker:
define culture bias
if culture bias exists
universality not possible
define ethnocentrism
define cultural relativism (16 marker)

Question 11

Free will Vs. Determinism

Answer 11

The concept of free will suggests that as human beings we are free to choose our behaviours, thoughts and actions. Although there may be external or internal forces that can impact this choice, free will believes we have the ability to reject these pressures and self-determine our own destiny.

Where as determinism argues that all behaviour is controlled and caused by external and/or internal factors and individuals have no free will over their behaviour.

Question 12

Types of determinism

Answer 12

Hard Determinism:
All human behaviour is a result of external and/or internal causes that we cannot control as individuals. Free will does not play a role, so individuals do not have any choice in the behaviour they display.
Example:
It is believed that an individual’s vulnerability to developing OCD is caused by internal factors such as the inheritance of a mutated SERT gene which causes anxiety.

Soft Determinism:
All human behaviour is a result of external and/or internal causes, yet as individuals we also have the ability to make conscious decisions about what we want in life, which can also impact human behaviour.
Example:
In the social learning theory we learn behaviour through observing a model and imitating them, however our thought processes must play a role as to whether or not we identify someone as a role model or not.

Question 13

Hard Determinism types

Answer 13

Biological Determinism:
Human behaviour is controlled by biological factors such as genetics, evolution & hormones.
Link to Psych:
Addiction to a substance/behaviour can be encouraged through lower levels of D2 receptors.

Environmental Determinism:
Behaviour is controlled by external factors within individual’s surroundings such as parents, society, schools, peers, upbringing e.g. reinforcements and punishments.
Link to Psych:
An infant learns to attach to their caregiver via stimulus, response association with the food provided.

Psychic Determinism:
Human behaviour is controlled by unconscious conflict within the mind, which have been repressed from early childhood.
Link to Psych:
Anxious personality could be cause by an overactive super ego (morality principle).

Question 14

Free will vs Determinism – AO3

Answer 14

The concept of determinism is highly scientific in nature because from research it is possible to predict behaviour and to control/treat it. Determinism leads to practical applications, because if we know the cause of abnormal behaviour in society i.e. high level of dopamine causing Schizophrenia, then it will be easier for us to develop treatments. For example, it is unlikely that anyone in society would choose to have schizophrenia and experience total loss of control over their thoughts and behaviour (as free will would suggest), therefore using a deterministic stance has led to drugs being developed to help decrease dopamine activity in the brain (typical/atypical antipsychotics) and thus reduce positive symptoms of schizophrenia such as hallucinations. This means when explaining human behaviour determinism can play an important part in applied psychology.

Although determinism has led to practical applications and the development of treatments, taking a stance of hard determinism is inconsistent with the idea of self control and responsibility which has implications for the British legal system. Hard determinism suggests that all human behaviour is a result of internal and external factors and that we have no choice over our behaviour. However, in the court of law, offenders are considered morally accountable for their actions, which would suggest that individual free will plays a role in whether or not someone commits a crime. Therefore, this restricts the use of determinism in the real world when explaining people’s behaviour.

8 marker:
define determinism
define free will
one type of determinism is ( hard determinism)
an example of free will is (humanistic approach)
in between is soft determinism- define (16 marker)

Question 15

The scientific emphasis on causal explanations

Answer 15

(1) Deterministic research helps establish cause and effect
(2) Lab experiments where IV is manipulated led to determinism
(3) Lab experiments can be sure what is controlling behaviour is due to controlling all EV in lab setting
(4) therefore, cause and effect can be established between IV and DV, this can lead to general laws of behaviour being created

Question 16

Nature

Answer 16

The nature-nurture debate discusses whether human behaviour is due to nature (genes) or nurture (environment, experiences).

Nativist psychologists believe in the importance of heredity – the idea that human characteristics/behaviours are innate and passed on from one generation to the next via genes.
For example, Bowlby’s monotropic theory states that babies come into the world biologically pre- programmed to form attachments through behaviours such as social releasers because this will help them to survive. Therefore attachment is innate.

Question 17

Nurture

Answer 17

In contrast, empiricists argue that the mind is a ‘blank slate’ at birth and our behaviour is shaped by our environment, learning and experience.

For example, behavioural psychologists explain attachment in terms of classical conditioning where food (UCS) is associated with the feeder (NS) and through repeated pairings the mother becomes a CS which produces a CR in the child of pleasure. Therefore attachment is a learned behaviour.

It is very difficult to answer the nature-nurture debate as environmental influences in a child’s life begins as soon as it is born.
For example, it is often very difficult to tell whether high concordance rates in MZ twins are the result of shared genetics or shared upbringing.
Therefore, the nature-nurture debate has changed in recent years – instead of trying to decide whether a behaviour is due to nature or nurture, psychologists are now more concerned with the relative contribution of each.

Question 18

The interactionist approach

Answer 18

The interactionist approach takes a stance between the extreme nature and extreme nurture debate. It argues that both genetics and the environment play a part in human behaviour.

This approach states that genetics give us a predisposition to certain behaviours. However, our genetics are then influenced by the environment. An example of this is OCD. An individual may be born with a h-SERT gene which makes them vulnerable to OCD but may not develop the disorder unless they experience a stressful life event.

Question 19

Nature Vs Nurture AO3

Answer 19

The nature side of the debate cannot be a full explanation of human behaviour; this is because if genes were 100% the sole cause of a behaviour, MZ twins who share 100% of their genes should have 100% concordance rates. However, this is not the case for example in the biological explanation of schizophrenia concordance rates for MZ twins are only 48%. Therefore, there must be other factors that affect human behaviour such as the environment and our experiences (nurture debate).

A more appropriate view when explaining human behaviour may be the interactionist approach. This would argue that genetics give us a predisposition to certain behaviours and that our genetics are then influenced by our environment and experiences. For example, Tienari (2004) found that in a group of Finnish adoptees those most likely to develop schizophrenia (sz) had biological relatives with sz (diathesis) and had dysfunctional relationships with their adoptive families (stressor). Therefore, showing both sides of the debate, nature and nurture, impacted on the likelihood that an individual developed schizophrenia, supporting the idea of interactionism.

Question 20

Holism vs reductionism

Answer 20

This argument proposes that we should examine individuals complex behaviour by taking into consideration all aspects of their experience, including culture.

This side of the debate examines complex human behaviour by breaking it down into smaller constituent parts/basic units/components.

For example, the Biological Approach is reductionist because it explains complex
human behaviour by just a basic biological component (genes, neurotransmitters). Humanism, however, is a more holistic approach as it explains complex human behaviour by focusing on broader experiences and circumstances (culture and socio-economic background).

Question 21

Levels of Explanation

Answer 21

For example Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder can be explained by various levels of explanation:
* Socio-Cultural Context: behaviours such as repetitive hand washing most people would regard as odd or irrational.
* Psychological level: behaviours are due to obsessive thoughts.
* Neurochemical level: OCD is due to low levels of serotonin

Question 22

Biological Reductionism

Answer 22

Biological reductionism is explaining complex human behaviour by narrowing it down to basic biological systems e.g. genetic, physiology of the body brain or biochemistry.
This has been used to create drug treatments due to affecting neurotransmitter levels e.g dopamine in schizophrenia

Question 23

Environmental Reductionism

Answer 23

Environmental reductionism simplifies complex human behaviour down to learning through stimulus-response association’s i. e. classical conditioning.
A phobia of snakes can be explained as learned through an experience such as a bite from a snake, where fear and pain are associated with the snake. This explanation ignores mental (cognitive) processes of the mind that occur at a psychological level.

Question 24

Holism

Answer 24

The holistic side of the debate argues that psychology should look at the whole individual rather than one specific part to explain human behaviour. Holism advocates do not deny the potential influences of genetics or biochemistry but feel that it is necessary to take a step back from the detail and look at the social context of that individual i.e. friends and family and culture.
For example the humanistic approach is holistic, as it argues peers and family can place conditions of worth on a person and these can be influenced by cultural factors

Question 25

Holism vs Reductionism (AO3)

Answer 25

Holism is praised for explaining aspects of social behaviour which only arise in group settings and cannot be understood at the level of the individual group member (reductionism). For example, the effects of conformity on social roles and the deindividuation of the prisoners and guards in the Stanford Prison Experiment could not be understood by studying people at an individual level because it was an interaction between people and it was the behaviour of the group that was important. Therefore, in cases such as these, it is important to take a holistic view in order to explain human behaviour.

One criticism of the holistic approach is that researches often do not use scientific methods to investigate human behaviour, unlike the research from the reductionist explanation. This is because, as the explanations become more complex and more holistic, they become more vague so psychologists are unable to test them scientifically unlike reductonist explanations such as the biological approach, which conduct objective and empirical methods to establish cause and effect. Therefore a reductionist approach to understanding human behaviour, may be favoured due to the increase in internal validity when compared to holistic approaches.

16 marker:
holism vs reductionism
1/2 type of reductionism
holism define, topic
eg humanistic approach

Question 26

Idiographic vs Nomothetic

Answer 26

Idiographic approach – an approach to research that focuses more on the individual case as a way of understanding behaviour.

Nomothetic approach – Studies groups of people to produce general laws of human behavior.

Question 27

Idiographic approach

Answer 27

The idiographic approach sees individuals as unique, each with their own subjective experiences, motivations and values. It is generally associated with methods that produce qualitative data such as case studies, unstructured interviews and other self-report methods.
The aim of the approach is to gain an insight into the person’s unique way of viewing the world.

Examples of the idiographic approach
The Humanistic approach is an approach that takes on an ‘idiographic perspective’. Rogers and Maslow were interested in documenting the conscious experience of the self. They describe themselves as ‘anti-scientific’ and are more concerned about the unique experience of the individual rather than creating ‘general laws of behaviour’.

Question 28

Nomothetic approach

Answer 28

The main aim of the nomothetic approach is to produce general laws of human behaviour. It mainly will be associated with methods that produce large amounts of quantitative data and that are scientific within psychology. These involve the study of large samples of people representative of the population to establish the ways
we are similar and different from one another. This approach will often use sampling methods such as random sampling to give a more representative sample.

Examples of the nomothetic approach
Most research carried about by behaviourist, cognitive and biological psychologists would meet the criteria of the nomothetic approach e.g. Skinner and the behaviourists studied the responses of rats and pigeons in order to develop laws in learning. Biological psychologists conduct brain scans to make generalisations about localisation of function. Hypothesis are tested, statistically analysed and general laws and principles are proposed and developed – all features of a nomothetic approach.

Question 29

Idiographic and Nomothetic approaches (AO3)

Answer 29

Critics argue that idiographic approaches could lack internal validity due to the absence of scientific methods. Idiographic approaches use methods such as case studies and self-reports which tend to be subjective and open to bias. This is unlike nomothetic approaches which use objective and empirical methods such as lab experiments and controlled observations to collect data on human behaviour. Therefore, this can lower credibility of the idiographic approach in comparison to the nomothetic approach which may be more respected by scientists and the general public due to their factual and scientific nature.

Although a strength of the idiographic approach is that it uses in-depth qualitative methods that provide rich data. This is because it focuses just on the individual and their unique experience. For example, the case study of Clive Wearing gave valuable insight into brain damaged individuals and amnesia and giving us supporting how our memory has separate stores (MSM). Unlike the nomothetic approach which use large samples and therefore cannot find out in-depth/rich information about single cases. Therefore, suggesting that the idiographic approach is a more effective approach for helping us understand the reasons behind human behaviour.

Question 30

socially sensitive research definition

Answer 30

Studies in which there are potential social consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in research or the class of people represented by the research which can lead to prejudice/ discrimination

Question 31

Ethical implications

Answer 31

For the groups represented in the research, what will be the impact on them / the group they represent

1. The effects of research findings on participants.
2. Potential bias against people of certain cultures/socio- economic backgrounds.
3. Possible uses of the findings – for example, could the findings be used by the government to create policies/change legislation?
4. How valid the findings of the research are, for example, some research might be presented as objective when it has used fraudulent methods.

AO2:
1) Consider the effects of the findings on the participants before conducting the research. Give a sensitive debrief. Keep data confidential.
2) Consider effects of the findings on the participants before conducting the research. Although it may not be possible
3) Findings are rarely neutral so all potential positive and negative uses should be considered
4) research being conducted using objective and well tested measures, can reduce or remove bias from their research, so we can be confident of the findings. Participants should also be fully debriefed

Question 32

Discuss one or more ethical implications of research in psychology. Refer to at least two topics you have studied in psychology in your answer.

Answer 32

Psychological research can have ethical implications in which there could be a direct impact upon the participants or the group the participants represent if the research is published. This research would be described as socially sensitive because there are possible social consequences for the class of people represented by the research. One of these implications could be how valid the findings of the research are, for example, research may be presented as objective when it has used fraudulent methods or has been influenced significantly by researcher bias. This can have further implications if the research then goes on to influence policies and legislation within society.

For example, Bowlby’s research on maternal deprivation argued that separation from the mother can lead to a range of psychological and social problems – including affectionless psychopathy. This had negative ethical implications because it influenced social policy. Mothers were encouraged to stay at home and look after children. This is because the theory of maternal deprivation blames the mother for the negative consequences, which can have negative implications for women by making them feel inadequate, guilty and pressured to fulfil the maternal role. As well as also making the father feel as though their role is less important.

In addition, when published, research findings can result in other ethical implications such as potential bias or labelling against certain vulnerable groups or cultures.

For example, research findings that schizophrenia is due to family dysfunction has ethical implications for the families of those who have a child with schizophrenia as people may label the family as the cause of the child’s schizophrenia. This is because the explanation states that Schizophrenia (Sz) is due to faulty communication patterns in families such as high levels of expressed emotion causing relapse. This is problematic as the parents of the child are having to take care of their child with Sz already and may experience feelings of guilt and blame for causing the condition. Therefore, family dysfunction explanation of sz may not be an appropriate explanation.