Approaches

Question 1

Science definition

Answer 1

Gaining knowledge through the use of objective investigations

Question 2

Wundts role in development of psychology as a science

Answer 2

• father of psychology
• set up first lab in Germany
• used controlled environments to study processes and scientific methods
• developed introspection

Question 3

Describe introspection

Answer 3

• focuses on present experience
• individuals conscious experience systematically analysed
• individual would focus on an object whilst listing to a stimulus e.g metronome and look inwards noticing sensations, feelings, images
• analysis is broken up into components of thoughts, images, sensations

Question 4

Wundt AO3

Answer 4

:) Wundt can be praised for moving psychology away from its philosophical roots. He used controlled environments with a standardised procedure to study thoughts, feelings and sensations, such as using the same stimulus every time (ticking metronome) and giving the participants the same standardised instructions. This therefore increased the ability to replicate the pieces of research and increased psychology’s status and its emergence as a science.

:( However, although the research was replicable it was not reliable. This is because introspection focuses on a participants subjective experience and therefore findings varied greatly from person to person, making it difficult to establish consistent general principles of human behaviour. Behaviourist psychologists such as Watson believed Psychology should only study behaviour that could be observed and measured scientifically. As a result of this, the behaviourist approach was born which used more empirical and objective methods, such as carefully controlled lab experiments, to study human behaviour, increasing the scientific status of Psychology as a subject.

Question 5

Psychodynamic Approach assumption

Answer 5

behaviour is due to unconscious motives

Question 6

Feature One: Role of the unconscious

Answer 6

unconscious is part of the mind that contains information we are not consciously aware of such as repressed memories

the unconscious protects our conscious self from anxiety or fears.

the unconscious drives our personality and behaviours.

Question 7

Types of conscious

Answer 7

CONSCIOUS:
The part of the mind that we know about and aware of

PRECONSCIOUS:
The part of the mind that is just below the conscious mind – and includes thoughts and ideas which we may become aware of during dreams or ‘slips of the tongue’

UNCONSCIOUS:
The part of the mind that we are unaware of – biological drives and instincts and threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed or locked away and forgotten but continue to drive our behaviour.

Question 8

Feature Two: Structure of personality

Answer 8

Id:
PLEASURE PRINCIPLE
* unconscious part of mind
* only ID present at brith
*expects immediate gratification
* If this is too overpowering for the ego it can produce a selfish personality

Ego:
REALITY PRINCIPLE
* rational/conscious part of mind
* forms from 18 months to 3 years
* Balances the demands to reduce conflict between the Id and Superego by using defence mechanisms.

Superego:
MORALITY PRINCIPLE
* forms between 3-6 years
* internalised sense of right and wrong (conscience)
* If this is too overpowering for the ego it can produce an anxious personality or feelings of guilt

Question 9

Describe what is meant by the term ‘defence mechanism’

Answer 9

Unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the Id and Superego.
For example, Repression – forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind

Question 10

Feature Three: Defence mechanisms

Answer 10

• The Ego has a difficult job balancing the conflicting demands of the Id and Superego so it uses the defence mechanisms.
• These are unconscious and stop the Ego from becoming overwhelmed with the conflicts.
• However, defence mechanisms can distort a person’s reality and overuse can affect behaviour so they are not a long term solution.

e.g. DENIAL- Refusing to acknowledge an unpleasant aspect of reality.

(displacement = Transferring feelings from the true source of distressing emotion onto a less threatening substitute target)

Question 11

Feature Four: Psychosexual stages

Answer 11

ORAL 0-1 years
- Gratification for the id is gained from the mouth such as from dummies, thumb sucking
- Oral fixation – smoking, biting nails

ANAL 1-3 years
- Gratification for the id is gained from the anus such as expulsion or withholding of faeces
- Anal retentive personality – perfectionist, obsessive.
- Anal expulsive personality – thoughtless, messy

PHALLIC 3-5 years
- Gratification for the id is gained from exploring their own genitals
- Phallic personality – narcissistic, reckless

Question 12

Psychodynamic Approach AO3

Answer 12

:( The structure of personality can be criticised for psychic determinism. This is because the feature suggests that an individual is controlled by internal factors such as the ID, ego and superego and overpowering of the ID can lead to a selfish personality, whereas an overpowering superego can lead to an anxious personality. Therefore, it neglects the role of free will, and choice that individuals have (suggesting free will is an illusion); this could leave individuals feeling like they have no control over their behaviour. Limiting the appropriateness of using the structure of personality to explain human behaviour and development.

:) A strength of the psychodynamic explanation of human behaviour is that it has practical applications. This is because the principles of the theory, that behaviour is caused by the unconscious mind has led to the treatment of psychoanalysis, which can be used to treat abnormalities in the real world, such as depression and anxiety by dealing with conflicts hidden in the unconscious. Therefore, the psychodynamic explanation of human behaviour is an important part of applied psychology as it helps to treat people in the real world.

:( A limitation of the psychodynamic approach to understanding the structure of personality in human behaviour is that it does not use scientific methods and therefore lacks scientific rigour. This is because the key concepts such as the unconscious and the Id, ego, superego are abstract concepts, which cannot be objectively and empirically tested and falsified – they cannot be observed objectively. Therefore, it could be argued that this decreases the overall internal validity of the psychodynamic approach’s explanation of the structure of personality, as well as human behaviour – which could additionally reduce Psychology’s scientific status.

Question 13

Behaviourist assumption

Answer 13

Humans are born a blank slate

Question 14

Behaviourism AO1 (not essay)

Answer 14

• Behaviourists were only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed and measured.
• Watson rejected introspection claiming it was too subjective and not measurable. Therefore, behaviourists rely on lab experiments as these are a better way of maintaining control and objectively measuring behaviour.
• Behaviourists believe that animals can replace humans in research because they learn in the same way as humans
  BEHAVIOURISTS proposed two main theories:
  1. Classical Conditioning
  2. Operant Conditioning

Question 15

Feature one: classical conditioning

Answer 15

food =UCS
salivation = UCR
bell is NS

dog repeatedly presented with food and bell rang

dog learnt to associate food to bell

bell= CS causes
salivation = CR

Question 16

Feature two: operant conditioning

Answer 16

Hungry rat placed in Skinners box; every time the rat pressed the lever the rat was rewarded with food.
This behaviour was repeated as the rat was conditioned to press the lever through positive reinforcement to get the same pleasant outcome.

Skinner ran an electrical current across the floor which caused the rat discomfort. The rat would move around until it knocked the lever. The lever would stop the current; the rat would repeat this behaviour as it had learned by pressing the lever it would avoid the unpleasant consequence of pain.

Question 17

Behaviourist approach AO3

Answer 17

:( the behaviourist explanation of human behaviour can be criticised for environmental reductionism. This is because the approach reduces complex human behaviour down to simple basic units for example, learning through stimulus, response and association (classical conditioning) or rewards and reinforcements (operant conditioning). For example, little Alberts fear was solely due to associating the rat with the loud noise. This neglects a holistic approach, which would take in to account how a person’s culture and social context would influence and explain human behaviour. Therefore, the behaviourist explanation of human behaviour may lack validity, as it does not allow us to understand the behaviour in context.

The behaviourist explanation of human behaviour can be criticised for environmental determinism. This is because the approach states that an individual is controlled by external factors such as learning through stimulus, response and association (classical conditioning) or being rewarded for a behaviour (operant conditioning) that inevitably cause behaviour. EXAMPLE. Therefore, it neglects the role of free will, and choice that individuals have; this could leave individuals feeling like they have no control over their behaviour. Limiting the behaviourist explanation of human behaviour.

A strength of the behaviourist explanation of human behaviour is that it has practical applications. The principles of the theory, that behaviour is caused by classical conditioning has led to the treatment of systematic desensitisation. This is effective in treating phobias by helping the individual to unlearn their maladaptive association to a phobic stimulus by gradually exposing them to their phobia whilst they apply relaxation techniques. Therefore, the behaviourist explanation of human behaviour is an important part of applied psychology as it helps to treat people in the real world.

Question 18

Humanistic Psychology assumption

Answer 18

All humans can determine their own behaviour and have free will

Question 19

Feature One: Free will

Answer 19

• free will is possible.
• Humans are self-determining so our behaviour is due to our choices and we can reject any internal or external influences such as, genes or unconscious motives.
• enable personal change and growth

Due to this, humanistic psychology are concerned with the unique experience of individuals, rather than general laws of human behaviour gained through scientific methods.
 

Question 20

Feature Two: Self-actualisation

Answer 20

Maslow developed the hierarchy of needs.

First need is Phsyological needs: water, food
Safety needs: family, employment
love/belonging: friendship, love
Esteem needs: independence, confidence
Self actualisation: morality, creativity

Self-actualisation is the highest level and is not a need we seek because of something we are lacking but for personal growth. We aim to fulfil our potential and this will continue to change throughout our lives

Question 21

Feature Three: Congruence

Answer 21

Congruence occurs when there is match between your perceived self and your ideal self. If this occurs it enables a person to show personal growth and achieve their goals.

When there is a MISMATCH between the perceived and ideal self we are in a STATE OF INCONGRUENCE they are likely to have low self-worth and poorer psychological health.

Rogers would suggest a person should go through counselling to close the gap by developing a more healthy view of him/herself or a more realistic or achievable ideal self.

Question 22

Conditions of worth definition

Answer 22

If a person has issues of low self-esteem and worthlessness in adulthood these may be a consequence of our early childhood due to conditions of worth. In childhood, parents or significant others place limits on their love

Question 23

How can conditions of worth/ incongruence be dealt with?

Answer 23

• Counselling can help them deal with these issues as the therapist creates an environment where the person can feel unconditional positive regard
• The therapist must accept the client’s feelings and experiences and avoid making judgements
• This helps resolve the conditions of worth and help guide the client towards self-actualisation by helping them focus on their authentic (genuine) self

Question 24

The influence of humanistic psychology on counselling

Answer 24

• Roger’s referred to the ‘patient’ as a ‘client’
  individual= expert on their own condition
• Therefore, PCT is NON-DIRECTIVE, and the client is encouraged to EXERT FREE WILL and discover solutions to their own problems.
• focuses on present problems rather than dwelling on the past like Psychoanalysis.

The aim of PCT is to increase the person’s feeling of self-worth, reduce incongruence between the self and ideal self and ultimately help them to become a more fully functioning person.

In order for the therapy to be successful, Roger’s emphasised the importance of creating a warm, supportive and non-judgemental atmosphere where the individual can achieve personal growth and congruence. To do this, the therapist must show: genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard

Question 25

Humanistic Psychology AO3

Answer 25

:) A strength of humanistic psychology is that it takes a holistic approach to explaining behaviour. It takes into account how a person’s subjective experience would influence and explain their whole behaviour. Whereas reductionist approaches such as behaviourism reduce complex human behaviour to a consequence of stimulus response associations. Therefore, humanism is seen as a more valid way of understanding human behaviour in a real life context than the more reductionist alternative explanations.

:) A further strength of the humanistic explanation of human behaviour is that it has practical applications. This is because the principles of the theory, that individuals have the free will to choose their behaviour has revolutionised counselling techniques and has led to the treatment of Person-Centred Therapy. PCT can be used to treat abnormalities in the real world, such as depression by helping the individual to achieve congruence and self-actualise. Therefore, the humanistic explanation of human behaviour is an important part of applied psychology as it helps to treat people in the real world.

:( ☹ One limitation of the humanistic approach is that it is bound by culturally relativism. Many of the concepts of humanism such as self actualisation and personal growth are associated with individualistic (western) cultures. Collectivist cultures such as India emphasise the needs of community and working as a group. Therefore it is possible that this approach does not apply universally and is limited to western cultures

Question 26

Learning approach assumption

Answer 26

SLT suggest learning is through OBSERVING a MODEL and IMITATING a model

Question 27

Feature One: Observational Learning

Answer 27

Identification is where an individual identifies himself or herself with a role model due to similarity or status and wants to be like the role model. Therefore, a person is more likely to imitate the behaviours of these models.

Imitation- when an individual observes a behaviour from a role model and copies it.

Vicarious reinforcement: If a person sees a role model rewarded for a particular behaviour then it increases the chance that the observer will imitate behaviour to receive the same reward. This is indirect reinforcement.

THIS LEADS TO

Modelling: This is the process of imitating the behaviour of a role model. From a role models view, they are precisely showing the observer a specific behaviour to be imitated.

Question 28

Feature Two: Mediational Processes

Answer 28

The four mediational processes occur between stimulus (observing) and response (imitating).

1. Attention- learning occurs when they attend to a model’s behaviour, e.g. children must observe what the model is doing or saying in order to reproduce the models behaviour. Our attention must be captured.
2. Retention- To reproduce the modelled behaviour they must store the memory of this behaviour in LTM, allowing the behaviour to be remembered. This is more likely if the information is easy to store, memorable, and especially if the behaviour is observed repeatedly
3. Reproduction- Individuals must have the skills and capabilities to be confident they could reproduce the models behaviour, again this is more likely if the behaviour is easy to replicate. The behaviour is also more likely to be repeated if it is simple
4. Motivation or reinforcements- an individual may be motivated to imitate the behaviour because they have seen someone else rewarded for the behaviour (indirect reinforcement - vicarious reinforcement) or because they identify with the model e.g. similarity or because the model is high status.

Question 29

Banduras Study

Answer 29

Aim: To see whether aggressive behaviour could be learned through observation.

Sample: 36 boys and 36 girls (3-5 years old).

70% of children in the non-aggressive or control groups had zero ratings of aggression.

Question 30

Social Learning Theory AO3

Answer 30

:) Bandura conducted research to support the Social Learning Theory in psychology. Bandura found that when children observed a model acting aggressively towards a Bobo Doll they were more likely to imitate the aggressive behaviour. Whereas, 70% of the children who observed a non-aggressive model or no model showed zero ratings of aggression. Therefore evidencing how observation of behaviour can lead to imitative learning and the importance of a role model as the Social Learning Theory suggests.

:) A strength of the Social Learning Theory explanation of human behaviour is that it has practical applications. This is because the principles of the theory, that behaviour is caused by observing and imitating a model, which has been used by the government to control how the media portray certain behaviours e.g. restricted the advertisement of cigarettes and alcohol in order to reduce this negative behaviour. Therefore, the Social Learning Theory explanation of human behaviour is an important part of applied psychology as it helps to promote positive behaviours in the real world

:( However, an alternative explanation for human behaviour is the Biological explanation. This would suggest that human behaviour is due to genes or hormones rather than learning through observation. For example, the Social Learning Theory underestimates the role of hormones in Bandura’s research as one consistent finding was that boys were often more aggressive than girls regardless of the situation they were in. This difference could be explained by hormones (levels of testosterone between girls and boys). Therefore the Social Learning Theory is not the only explanation of human behaviour that should be considered.

Question 31

Cognitive approach assumption

Answer 31

It is our mental processes that affect behaviour e.g. our thoughts, memories and perceptions and these should be studied scientifically (lab experiments) allowing inferences to be made

Question 32

FEATURE ONE: STUDY OF INTERNAL MENTAL PROCESSES

Answer 32

argues that internal mental processes can be studied scientifically by investigating memory, perception and thinking. The cognitive approach believes that we actively process and organise information we receive rather than respond passively to our environment, as behaviourism suggests.

Cognitive psychologists suggest that our internal mental processes are ‘private’ and cannot be observed, so are studied indirectly by making inferences about what is going on INSIDE THE MIND (MENTAL PROCESSES) based on an individual’s behaviour

Question 33

What is meant by Inferences

Answer 33

The process where cognitive psychologists go beyond the immediate evidence to draw logical assumptions about how internal mental processes drive our behaviour based on observed behaviour, but not directly inferred. This can be from the use of experimental procedures

Question 34

FEATURE 2: THE USE OF THEORETICAL AND COMPUTER MODELS

Answer 34

• argue that the mind functions like a computer
• The information-processing model applies the idea of the human mind functioning like a computer.

Input: We receive the Information from the environment via our senses

Information processing:
* The information is now processed (we interpret the event)
* We store the information

Output
* The appropriate behaviour, emotion is performed
* or retrieval of information occurs

(e.g ABC model)

Question 35

The use of theoretical models to explain behaviour

Answer 35

• take a behaviour and look at the processes that happen ‘behind the scenes’, then describe this process in a series of steps.
• One important theoretical model is the Multi-Store Model which suggests that memory has separate unitary stores, each with different coding, capacites and durations and that information flows through memory in a linear way.
• This theory has been studied scientifically, for example Miller used a controlled lab experiment to investigate the capacity of STM in which he used the digit span technique, adding one digit each time until participants could no longer recall the number.
• This experiment has been replicated many times and the findings that participants can recall 5-9 items has been found to be reliable, inferring that the capacity of STM is limited

Question 36

Feature three: What is meant by a schema?

Answer 36

• Schemas are a form of internal mental processes
• They are mental representations
• That are created through unique knowledge and experience
• Held in our LTM and can include beliefs such as stereotypes
• Schemas can change through life and become more detailed through experience

Question 37

The role of schemas

Answer 37

Schemas are beliefs, based on past experience which can help us to predict what might happen.

Schemas help us make quick decisions, because they are a useful mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by information from the environment.

Question 38

Why schemas may not be beneficial

Answer 38

Schemas can cause biased recall/EWT, as we may recall what we expect to see according to our schema, rather than what we have actually witnessed.

Negative schemas may make an individual vulnerable to depression.

Question 39

Cognitive Approach AO3

Answer 39

:) The cognitive explanation is a form of soft determinism. It sees human behaviour as being caused by internal factors (internal mental processes), however, would suggest that individuals have some choice over their behaviour (unlike the biological approach which would suggest we have no choice). This could be beneficial as individuals may feel more in control and feel it is possible to alter these faulty thought processes, for example in those suffering with depression, making the cognitive explanation of human behaviour a more positive approach

:( One limitation of the cognitive approach is that it is based on machine reductionism. There are similarities between the human mind and the operations of a thinking machine such as a computer (inputs and outputs), however this analogy has been criticised. Machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion on the cognitive systems, such as anxiety and memory in eyewitness testimony. Therefore the computer analogy may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach.

:) A further strength of the cognitive explanation of human behaviour is that it has practical applications. This is because the principles of the theory, that behaviour is caused by internal mental processes, has led to the treatment CBT. This is effective in treating disorders such as depression by helping the individual to dispute their irrational thoughts and negative schemas. Therefore, the cognitive explanation of human behaviour is an important part of applied psychology as it helps to treat people in the real world.

Question 40

Biological approach assumption

Answer 40

Physical factors such as our hormones, neuroanatomy, nervous system and the inheritance of genes can all explain our behaviour

Question 41

FEATURE ONE: THE INFLUENCE OF GENES ON BEHAVIOUR

Answer 41

genetic explanation argues that behavioural characteristics are genetically inherited the same way as physical characteristics. Therefore, behaviours will run in families.

genetic explanation would argue that OCD is due to the inheritance of one or many maladaptive (undesirable) genes e.g. SERT

closer the genetic link to someone with OCD, the greater the risk a person would inherit OCD. The genetic probability of sharing a behaviour is measured by concordance rates. The higher the concordance rate found, then the stronger the evidence for a genetic basis of behaviour.
This is shown in twin studies where monozygotic (identical) twins have been found to have a concordance (likelihood) of 87% compared to concordance rates of 47% for dizygotic twins (non-identical) for OCD.

Question 42

Define the term genotype

Answer 42

A genotype is a specific set of genes that an individual has inherited from their biological parents and is unique to them. Genotypes can give a predisposition to disorders

Question 43

Define the term phenotype

Answer 43

The phenotype of an individual could be due to the product of what happens when the genotype interacts with the environment. This is how our genes are expressed through physical, behaviour and psychological characteristics, they are observable traits or behaviours shown by an individual.

(identical twins= same genotype, different phenotypes due to environment)

Question 44

FEATURE TWO: THE INFLUENCE OF BIOLOGICAL STRUCTURES ON BEHAVIOUR

Answer 44

A biological structure is an organ, such as the brain or a system, such as the nervous system or endocrine system.
The brain is one biological structure that can influence behaviour. Abnormalities in size, shape or function in certain areas of the brain can lead to certain behaviours.
For example, the enlarged ventricles in the brain can increase the likelihood of experiencing symptoms of schizophrenia.

Question 45

FEATURE THREE: THE INFLUENCE OF NEUROCHEMISTRY ON BEHAVIOUR

Answer 45

A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger in the brain that passes information from one synapse to the other to produce behaviour/emotion. There are a range of neurotransmitters in the brain that communicate these messages, when there is an imbalance it can cause abnormal behaviour.

An imbalance of the neurotransmitter dopamine has been linked with the development of Schizophrenia and an imbalance of serotonin has been associated with the development of depression, anxiety and OCD

Question 46

FEATURE FOUR: EVOLUTION AND BEHAVIOUR

Answer 46

natural selection suggests that any genetically determined behaviour that increases an individual’s chances of survival and reproduction will continue to be passed on to future generations e.g. intelligence and aggression.

This process takes places ‘naturally’. It happens because the individual who possesses certain beneficial traits will have increased chances of survival and therefore will be able to pass on the beneficial traits to their offspring

Being aggressive will, at some point in our ancestry, have been advantageous in terms of survival and increasing reproduction. Perhaps, because aggression would have increased their chances of gaining resources such as hunting food which would be attractive to a mate, therefore this aggressive behaviour has been naturally selected and passed on.

Question 47

Biological Approach AO3

Answer 47

:( The biological explanation of human behaviour can be criticised for biological determinism. This is because the approach states that an individual is controlled by internal factors such as genes and neurochemicals that inevitably cause behaviour EXAMPLE. Therefore, it neglects the role of free will, and choice that individuals have; this could leave individuals feeling like they have no control over their behaviour. Limiting the biological explanation of human behaviour.

:( Moreover, the biological explanation of human behaviour can be criticised for biological reductionism. This is because the approach reduces complex human behaviour down to simple basic units for example, genes and neurochemicals. (Include example here if you can). This neglects a holistic approach, which would take in to account how a person’s culture and social context would influence and explain human behaviour. Therefore, the biological explanation of human behaviour may lack validity, as it does not allow us to understand the behaviour in context

:) A strength of the biological explanation of human behaviour is that it has practical applications. The principles of the theory, that behaviour is caused by an imbalance of neurotransmitters, has been used to create treatments such as SSRI’s. These have been effective in treating individual’s with disorders such as OCD and Depression by increasing serotonin activity. Therefore, the biological explanation of human behaviour is an important part of applied psychology as it helps to treat people in the real world.

Question 48

Explanation of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 48

Cognitive neuroscience is scientific study of brain, mechanisms, processes, chemistry that are responsible for cognitive processes

This is a theory that has recently emerged as technology has advanced, enabling psychologists to use a number of brain imaging techniques, such as fMRI and PET scans, to investigate how brain activity might underpin mental processes.

This is achieved by comparing people with a disorder to those without a disorder to identify the physical basis for cognitive processes in the brain.

Cognitive neuroscience believes that computer models are important in understanding how individuals think.

Question 49

cognitive neuroscience practical application

Answer 49

• Tulving’s research is one example of Cognitive Neuroscience in action. Whilst ppts completed tasks requiring the use of their episodic and semantic memory, the use of PET scans lead Tulving to discover that different parts of the LTM are located in different areas of the brain (opposite sides of the pre-frontal cortex). Lead to treatments/ ways to support people with memory disorders