Memory Flashcards
Long term memory (LTM)
A permanent store holding limitless amounts of information for long periods.
Short term memory (STM)
A temporary store holding small amounts of information received by the senses (senses = sight, smell, touch, audio, taste, kinaesthesis (feel)
Coding
Describes how information enters our memory system from sensory input.
Duration
The length of time information remains within storage.
Capacity
The amount of information that can be stored at a given time.
Interference
Forgetting because one memory blocks another, causing one or both memories to be distorted or forgotten.
Proactive Interference
Forgetting occurs when older memories, already stored, disrupt the recall of newer memories. The degree of forgetting is greater when then memories are similar.
Retroactive Interference
Forgetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories already stored. The degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar.
McGeoch and McDonald (1931)
Procedure:
Giving participant a list of 10 adjectives to recall until they achieved 100%.
Then they were split up into six groups where they were given a different second list:
1. synonyms
2. antonyms
3. unrelated words to the original ones
4. consonant syllables
5. three-digit numbers
6. no new list
Findings:
When participants recalled the original list, their performance depended on the nature of the second list.
Synonyms produced the worst recall. The group with no new list performed the best.
Therefore, interference is strongest when the memories are similar.
Sensory Register
The memory store for each of our five senses.
sight
hearing
smell
taste
touch
What are the 3 parts of the Multi-Store Model?
Sensory Register
Short-term memory
Long-term memory
What is the science word for the store of visual coding?
iconic memory
What is the science word for the store of acoustically coding?
echoic memory
How does the MSM suggest information are transferred from STM to LTM?
Maintenance rehearsal describes the process of repeating material to ourselves. As long as we repeat it, it stays in the STM. If we rehearse it long enough, it goes over into LTM.
What are the two coding parts of the sensory register?
Iconic memory
Echoic memory
What are the 3 types of LTM?
Episodic memory
Semantic memory
Procedural memory
Outline semantic memory
- Our knowledge of the world.
- Memories are not time stamped
- These are not personal memories
- These information can be factual or abstract
Outline procedural memory
- Memory of actions or skills
- implicit automatic
- Memories are not time stamped
- No conscious awareness
- It is difficult to explain to others
Outline episodic memory
- The ability to recall event from our lives
- Memories are time stamped
- they contain specific details of the event
- there is a context to the event
- emotions are involved
- A conscious effort is necessary to recall these memories
Who put forward the Working Memory Model?
Baddeley & Hitch (1974)
What are the key facts about the WMM
- Used when working on complex tasks which requires you to store information as you go along.
- It is a storage and process in one
- It has limited capacity
What are the 5 parts of the WMM?
Phonological Loop
Visuo-spatial sketchpad
Central executive
Episodic buffer
Long-term memory
What does the Phonological Loop does? (WMM)
- Responsible for processing sound-based information
- Capacity = It can only focus on one thing at a time
- Coding is acoustic
- duration is about 2 seconds
Two sup-sections:
Articulatory Control System
- inner voice (allows maintenance rehearsal)
Phonological Store
- inner ear (stores sound information)
What are the functions of the Visuo-spatial Sketchpad? (WMM)
It is the “inner eye”
- Stores visual and/or spatial information if required
- Coding is visual and spatial
- Capacity is 3 to 4 objects
Logie (1995) subdivided the VSS into
- Visual cache (stores visual data)
- Inner scribe (records arrangement of objects in visual field)
What are the functions of the Central Executive? (WMM)
- It is in control of the Phonological Loop and Visuospatial Sketchpad (slave systems)
- It decides what we pay attention to
- Coding is flexible
- Capacity is very limited
What are “slave systems”?
Slave systems are controlled by the Central Executive.
The two slave systems are:
Phonological Loop
Visuo-spatial Sketchpad
Who added the Episodic Buffer to the WMM and why?
Added by Baddeley (2000) because the WMM could not explain how LTMs can be brought into or working memory. Also how sound and visual information could be integrated.
What are the function of the Episodic Buffer? (WMM)
- A temporary store for information
- Capacity is about 4 chunks
- Integrates visual, spatial and verbal information from other stores
- Coding is flexible
- It links working memory (STM) with LTM
- Maintains sense of time sequencing (recording events that are happening)
Outline Baddeley and Hitch´s study into memory (WMM)
Procedure:
Participants were asked to perform 2 task at the same time (dual task technique). A digit task required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task which required them to answer true or false to various questions.
Results:
As the number of digits increased in the digit span task, participants took longer to answer the reasoning questions, but not much longer – only fractions of a second. And they did not make any more errors in the verbal reasoning task as the number of digits increased.
Conclusion:
The verbal reasoning task made use of the central executive, and the digit span task made use of the phonological loop.
Evaluate the WMM
Strengths:
- supportive evidence (KF case study)
- dual task performance studies support the idea of a VSS (Baddeley et al, 1975)
- support of brain scan studies
Limitations:
- the Central Executive might need further explanation rather than only “attention” and “control”
Outline the case study of KF by Warrington an Shallice (1969)
KF experienced difficulties in recalling and retaining verbal material (digits, words or sentences). However, his nonverbal memory remained relatively intact, as he performed well on visual and spatial tasks.
Tests indicated a specific deficit in his ability to hold and manipulate verbal information in short-term memory.
This case study challenged theories about the unitary nature of short-term memory.
Outline Braver et al. (1997) research
Procedure:
He asked participants to do task while they were having a brain scan. These tasks involved the Central Executive which activities are seen in the area of the prefrontal cortex.
Findings:
He found that the harder the activity became, the more activity in the prefrontal cortex.
Conclusion:
These results provide evidence of the functions of the CE and that it may even have a physical reality in the brain.
Name and define the two explanations of forgetting
Interference theory
- forgetting occurs when one memory blocks another, causing one or both memories to be distorted or forgotten
Retrieval failure
- we forget because when we try to recall information, there are no sufficient cues
Explain the Interference Theory as an explanation of forgetting
Proactive interference (pro = forward)
- Old memory interferes with a new memory. The degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar.
Retroactive interference (retro = backward)
- Newer memory interferes with an older memory. The degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar.
Explain Retrieval Failure as an explanation of forgetting
When information are placed in memory, there are cues associated with what we store.
Internal cues = bodily cues inside of us (mood, emotions)
External cues = external cues in the environment (smell, place)
Encoding specificity principle (ESP)
- an individual´s recall of material is enhanced when the conditions they are attempting to remember it matches those of when they originally learned it.
Evaluate the Interference Theory as an explanation of forgetting
Strengths:
- support of lab studies (McGeoch and McDonald)
- support from real-life studies (Baddeley and Hitch)
Limitations:
- limited real life application of the results of the studies (artificial material such as consonant syllables were used)
- the studies often try to create a maximum of interference when they ask participants to learn a lot in a short period of time (unrealistic)
- interference might not be a complete explanation and cues should be taken into account (Tulving and Psotka)
Outline Baddeley and Hitch (1977) research into explanations of forgetting
Aim:
to investigate retroactive interference in everyday memory
Procedure:
Rugby players who had played the whole season and rugby players who missed some games were asked to recall the names of the teams they had played against earlier in the season.
Findings:
The players who had played the most games forgot proportionally more games than those who had played fewer games.
Conclusion:
This was the result of retroactive interference, as learning new information (new team names) interfered with the memory of old information (earlier team names).
Outline Tulving and Psotka´s (1971) research into explanations of forgetting
Procedure:
participants were given word lists to remember with one condition having category heading and another without.
Findings:
In conditions without category headings, fewer words were recalled than when headings were present showing the information was available but simply unable to be accessed due to the absence of cues.
Outline Godden and Baddeley´s (1975) sea diver study on context-dependent forgetting
Procedure:
Divers learned a list of words either underwater or on land and were then asked to recall the words either underwater or on land.
4 conditions:
- Learn on land – recall on land
- Learn on land – recall underwater
- Learn underwater – recall underwater
- Learn underwater – recall in land
In 2 conditions learning and recall environment were matched.
Findings:
Accurate recall was 40% lower in non-matching conditions. This was because the external cues were different at learning and recalling.
Outline Carter and Cassaday´s (1998) research into state-dependent forgetting
Procedure:
They gave participants anti-histamine drugs (used to relieve high fewer symptoms). These had a mild sedative effect making the participants slightly drowsy. Creates a physiological state that is different from the normal state of being awake and alert.
Participants had to learn a list of words and passages and then recall the information.
4 conditions:
- Learn on drug – recall on drug
- Learn on drug – recall not on it
- Learn not on drug – recall not on it
- Learn not on drug – recall on it
Findings:
In participants were there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and recall, performance was significantly worse in terms of recalling the list of words. So when the cues are absent, there is more forgetting.
Explain misleading information as a part of EWT
Leading questions:
A question where there is information included in the question that may prompt or encourage the witness to a specific answer - they can lead to inaccuracy
Outline Loftus and Palmer´s (1974) research into Leading Questions (EWT)
Procedure:
45 students watched film clips of car accidents and then answered questions about speed. Critical question: “About how fast were the care going when they hit each other?”
They were divided in 5 groups, each given a different verb in the critical question.
Findings:
Smashed = 41
collided = 39
Bumped = 37
Hit = 33
Contacted = 32
Conclusion:
The leading questions biased eyewitnesses to recall the event differently.
Evaluate Loftus and Palmer´s research
The research lacks mundane realism, as the video clip does not have the same emotional impact as witnessing a real-life accident, and so the research lacks ecological validity.
Sample bias – students are not representative and they also have less driving experience which makes it more difficult for them to estimate speeds.
The study is easy to replicate due to the controlled setting (lab study) and the standardized procedure.
Evaluate Baddeley and Hitch´s study into forgetting
- investigates a very specific type of forgetting (similar information)
- is has high ecological validity as it is carried out in a real-life (field experiment)
Outline Keppel and Underwood´s (1962) research into interference
Aim:
to investigate the effect of proactive interference on long-term memory
Procedure:
Participants were presented with meaningless three-letter consonant trigrams at different intervals (3, 6, 9 seconds, etc). To prevent rehearsal the participants had to count backwards in threes before recalling.
Findings:
participants typically remembered the trigrams that were presented first, irrespective of the interval length
Conclusion:
Proactive interference occurred, as memory for the earlier consonants, which had transferred to long-term memory, was interfering with the memory for new consonant, due to similarity of the information presented.
Explain what is meant by “Post-Event Discussion (PED)” - EWT
A discussion that witnesses engage in after the crime which could result in contamination of the original testimony as witnesses combine their own recall with someone else´s. Some people conform because they want to be right.
Outline Gabber et al. research (2003) into Post-Event Discussion
Procedure:
Paired participants watched a video of the same crime, but filmed so each participant could see elements in the event that the other could not.
Both participants discussed what they had seen on the video before individually completing a test of recall.
Findings:
71% of the participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the event that they did not see in the video but had picked up in the post-event discussion.
In a control group, where there was no discussion, there were no errors.
Evaluate misleading information as a part of EWT
Strengths:
- real life application (police officers have to be more careful)
Limitations:
- Loftus and Palmer used artificial material (Yuille and Cutshall suggest that in real life recall is very accurate)
- there may be individual differences of the accuracy of EWT (younger better than older people)
- Lab studies often suffer from demand characteristics
Outline Yuille and Cutshall´s research into EWT
Aim:
To investigate the accuracy of recall of eye witnesses to a real crime, in response to leading questions and over time.
Procedure:
21 witnesses were interviewed by the police immediately after the event.
13 of those agreed to participate in the research interview 4-5 months later.
In both interviews they had to give their account of what happend and then answer following questions.
The researcher asked 2 misleading questions.
Participants also needed to say how they felt.
Findings:
Misleading questions had little effect on recall.
Participants who reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate (88% to 75%)
Conclusion:
Real eye witnesses are very reliable.
Those directly involved in the event remembered more than in lab studies.
However, it is difficult to generalise because of the small sample.
Explain the Weapon Focus Effect as a part of EWT
When a crime involves a weapon, if often attracts the attention of eyewitnesses. The anxiety associated with the weapon may affect the accuracy of the recall of the event.
Outline Johnson and Scott´s (1976) research into anxiety in EWT
Aim:
To investigate if high levels of anxiety affect recall.
Procedure:
Participants sat in a waiting room believing they were going to take part in a lab study. Each participant heard an argument in the next room.
There were 2 conditions:
- Low-anxiety condition: a man then walked through the waiting room carrying a pen with grease on his hand
- High-anxiety condition: the heated argument was accompanied by the sound of breaking glass. A man then walked through the waiting room holding a paper knife covered in blood.
Participants then asked to identify man form 50 photographs
Findings:
49% accuracy in identifying the man in the low-anxiety condition, and 33% accuracy in the high-anxiety condition.
Conclusion:
The findings support the idea of a weapon focus effect.
Explain the Yerkes-Dodson Law
They argue that the relationship between performance and arousal/stress of curvilinear rather than linear.
Support - Deffenbacher (1983)
Lower anxiety level did produce lower levels of recall accuracy. Recall accuracy increases with anxiety up to an optimal point. A drastic decline in accuracy is seen when an eyewitness experiences more anxiety than the optimal point.
Evaluate anxiety as a part of EWT
Limitations:
- Johnson and Scott may test surprise rather than anxiety (weapon effect only occurs because it is unusual - Pickel, 1998)
- Field studies lack control of variable (post-event discussion could have happend)
- Ethical issues with lab studies (unnecessary anxiety)
- the inverted-U explanation is too simplistic (emotional, cognitive and physical elements play a role)
- Lab studies are likely to suffer from demand characteristics
Define standard interview
- Closed questions
- Brief questions
- Minimal free recall
- Interruptions and distractions are likely to occur
Define cognitive interview
A questioning technique used by the police to enhance the retrieval of information about a crime scene from the eyewitness’s and victim’s memory.
Outline the 4 stages of the cognitive interview
They are designed to stimulate as many cues as possible in order to maximise different retrieval routes.
- Report everything - seemingly irrelevant details could trigger other memories
- Reinstate the context - mentally recreate the environment (context-dependent forgetting)
- Reverse the order - it is harder for the eye witness to produce an untrue accident in reverse order (no schemas)
- Change perspective - the participants should recall incident from various perspectives
Evaluate the cognitive interview
Strengths:
- useful elements (combination of report everything and reinstate context)
- supportive research (Köhnken et al.)
Limitations:
- time consuming
- the cognitive interview can vary in techniques each person uses (inconsistent research)
- CI also increases inaccurate information (Köhnken et al.)
Evaluate the cognitive interview
Strengths:
- useful elements (combination of report everything and reinstate context)
- supportive research (Köhnken et al.)
Limitations:
- time consuming
- the cognitive interview can vary in techniques each person uses (inconsistent research)
- CI also increases inaccurate information (Köhnken et al.)
Baddeley´s research into coding in STM and LTM
Procedure:
Participant needed to recall a list of five words either acoustically similar words, acoustically dissimilar words, semantically similar words or semantically dissimilar words.
Findings:
Immediate recall was worse with acoustically similar words = STM is acoustic
Recall after 20 minutes was worse with semantically similar words = LTM is semantic
Limitation:
- Baddeley used not unmeaningful material (meaning increases recall)
Jacobs´ research into capacity of STM
Procedure:
443 female students
Digit span: A researcher read four digits and increases until the participant cannot recall the order correctly.
Findings:
On average, participants could repeat back 9,3 numbers and 7,3 letters in the correct order immediately after they were presented.
Limitation:
- the research is too old which increases the chance of extraneous variable being less controled
Peterson and Peterson´s research into duration of STM
Procedure:
24 students were given a consonant syllable to (e.g. YCG) to remember and a 3-digit number to count backwards for 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds.
Findings:
The average recall with a 3-second interval was about 80%.
The average recall with a 18-seconds interval was about 3%
This suggests that the duration of STM without rehearsal is about 18-30 seconds.
Limitation:
- only used artificial stimuli (no real life memory)
Bahrick et al. research into duration of LTM
Procedure:
392 Americans aged between 17 and 74.
Recognition test: 50 photos from participants´ high school yearbook
Free recall test: participants listed names of their graduating class
Findings:
Participants tested 48 years after graduation were about 70% accurate in photo recognition. Free recall was less accurate.
This suggests that photos/visualisation helps us to remember things.
Strength:
- high external validity (meaningful memories)
