Approaches

Question 1

Introspection

Answer 1

The systematic analysis of one´s own conscious experiences including all sensations and emotional reactions.

Question 2

What does structuralism mean?

Answer 2

Isolating the basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations in a systematic way.

Question 3

What does inference mean?

Answer 3

Making an assumption about the way mental process work on the basis of observed behaviour.

Question 4

Key facts about the cognitive approach

Answer 4

It is based on mental processes. These are private thoughts which scientist study to infer cognitive causes for observed/measured behaviour.

Question 5

Explain the role of schemas

Answer 5

• A schema is a (top-down) cognitive representation of a person, place or situation (expectations we have about the world)
• They can be helpful to judge, interpret and organise situations and to make short-cuts when interpreting large amounts of data
• They are mostly inaccurate and can lead to prejudice
• We have also schemas about ourself (self-schemas)

Question 6

What is the information processing model?

Answer 6

Input –> Process –> output –> feedback

It suggests that the human brain processes information like a computer.

Question 7

Explain the emergence of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 7

Cognitive psychology was combined with the biological approach to create Cognitive Neuroscience.

Cognitive neuroscience uses scientific, non-invasive scanning techniques to investigate where in the brain different mental processes are based.

It uses techniques such as lesion studies, PET-scans, MRI or FMRI-scans

Question 8

What are lesion studies?

Answer 8

Involves studying the brain scans of patients with brain damage to investigate the impact upon normal behaviour.

For example: Phineas Gage

Question 9

What are strengths of the cognitive approach?

Answer 9

• It uses scientific and objective methods (Brain-scans)
• Real life application (contributed to the development of CBT)

Question 10

What are limitations of the cognitive approach?

Answer 10

• Machine reductionism (the brain is too complicated to be compared with a computer)
• Low ecological validity (they often uses recalls of lists or words but these are not everyday activities)

Question 11

Name key facts about behaviourism

Answer 11

• Studies only observable and measurable behaviour
• highly scientific and controlled because of lab studies
• the human learning process is very similar to the one of animals, therefore animals can replace humans in experiments
• Classical conditioning = learning through association
• Operant conditioning = learning through reinforcement

Question 12

Name the steps of classical conditioning

Answer 12

Neutral stimulus (NS) –> no respond

unconditioned stimulus (UCS) –> unconditioned response (UCR)

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) + Neutral stimulus (NS) –> unconditioned response (UCR)

Conditioned stimulus (CS) –> conditioned response (CR)

Question 13

Outline Pavlov´s study (1927)

Answer 13

Procedure:
He connected tubes to the dog´s saliva ducts so their level of salivation can be measured. Before conditioning Pavlov rang a bell which produced no response. After that, for before every meal for the dog Pavlov rang a bell.

Findings:
After time passed the dog salivated even without the food´s presence with only the bell ringing.

Conclusion:
The study shows that through classical conditioning a stimuli can be associated with a response.

Question 14

Evaluate behaviourism

Answer 14

Strengths:
- scientific credibility (highly controlled lab experiments)
- Real life application (prisoners were rewarded for good behaviour)

Limitations:
- environmentally determined (some people will continue to act in a certain way because of psychological damage)
- ethical issues (animal rights)
- mechanistic view of behaviour (human simply respond to their environment without free will)

Question 15

Name the three types of consequences in operant conditioning

Answer 15

Positive reinforcement
- A response or behaviour is strengthened by rewards, leading to the repetition of desired behaviour

Negative reinforcement
- The termination of an unpleasant state following a response. The removal of an adverse stimuli is rewarding.

Punishment
- decreases the repetition of behaviour through punishment

Question 16

Outline Skinner´s research into operant conditioning

Answer 16

Procedure:
He created a controlled environment for rats and birds (“Skinner Box”)
The box contained a lever, which could be pressed to deliver a food pellet, or to switch of unpleasant stimuli (noise or electric shocks)
The frequency of lever presses were recorded
After the rats were put into the box they explored only, but when accidently pressing the lever they associated the lever with food.

Findings:
When rats were give a food pellet, they were more likely to press the lever again (positive reinforcement).

When an electric shock was turned off by pressing the lever, the rats were more likely to press the lever over and over again (negative reinforcement).

When rats noticed they were shocked if they press the lever, they learned not to press it again (punishment).

Conclusion:
Rats learn behaviour through reinforcement (operant conditioning)

Question 17

Name key facts about the Social Learning Theory

Answer 17

• Behaviour is learned through observation and imitation
• Learning can be a result of direct reinforcement or vicarious reinforcement
• The mediating process (attention and memory) occurs between observing and imitating
• It is often described as the bridge between behaviourism and cognitive approach
• Reciprocal determinism

Question 18

Explain vicarious reinforcement

Answer 18

Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone being reinforced for a behaviour.

Question 19

What does reciprocal determinism mean?

Answer 19

Human beings influence their environment as well as being influenced by it

Question 20

Explain the mediational processes (social learning theory)

Answer 20

Attention - the extent to which we notice the behaviour
Retention - how well the behaviour is remembered
Motivation - the will to perform the watched behaviour (punishment or reinforcement)
Reproduction - The ability to perform the behaviour that the model has just demonstrated

Question 21

Explain the relationship of role models and identification

Answer 21

Role models are individuals who demonstrate behaviour that is observed and imitated.
Children are likely to model observed behaviour if they identify themselves with the person.
The criteria for someone to be a role mode are therefore: similar characteristics, attractiveness and a high status

Question 22

Outline Bandura´s research (1961)

Answer 22

Procedure:
1 condition: an adult behaved aggressively towards a Bobo doll. The adult attacks the doll with a hammer or shouted abuse at it
2 condition: an adult behaved non-aggressively towards a Bobo doll.
At the end, children in each condition were given a Bobo doll as well and the same toys to play with.

Findings:
Children who seen adults behaving aggressively behaved much more aggressively too.
Children who seen non-aggressive behaviour acted less aggressive.
Boys were more aggressive than girls
Imitation was greatest if watched same-sex adult.

Conclusion:
The findings support the idea of learning through observation and then imitating this behaviour.

Question 23

Outline Bandura and Walters´ research (1963)

Answer 23

Procedure:
They showed children videos were a person acted aggressive towards a Bobo doll.
1.group - Adult being praised for behaviour
2. group - Adult getting punished for behaviour
3. group - no consequences

Findings:
- Children who saw the adult being praised were much more aggressive.
- Children who saw no consequences were aggressive too.
- The group who saw punishment showed the least amount of aggression.
- Boys were more aggressive than boys
- Imitation was greatest if watched a same-sex adult

Conclusion:
The findings suggests that learning through consequences and imitating are strongly related.

Question 24

Evaluate the social learning theory

Answer 24

Strengths:
- Recognition of cognitive factors (mediational processes)
- Culturally universal (helps to understand social norms)

Limitations:
- Environmentally determined (we have no free choice but only act based on what we observe)
- Environmentally reductionist (abnormal behaviour can also have biological origins; hormones)

Question 25

Name key facts about the Biological Approach

Answer 25

All behaviour is caused by internal biological factors/processes.

There are four main elements of the biological approach:
1. Genetics
2. Biological structures
3. Neurochemistry
4. Evolution

Question 26

Explain the element of genetics (biological approach)

Answer 26

The question is whether behavioural characteristics (personality) are inherited in the same way as physical characteristics are (eye colour, height).

Twin studies are used to find out if behaviour is determined by the environment or biological factors (being raised in different parts of the world).

Question 27

What is the genotype?

Answer 27

It is an individual´s genetic make up which determines both physical and psychological characteristics.

Question 28

What is the phenotyp?

Answer 28

Observed characteristics of an organism influenced by both genetics and the environment

Question 29

Explain the element of biological structures (biological approach)

Answer 29

If biological structures (areas of the brain) are damaged this will affect behaviour.

Example: Phineas Gage
Pre-accident: responsible and likeable
Post-accident: irresponsible, no social skills, no inhibitions

Schizophrenia:
Patients with schizophrenia have enlarged ventricles compared to normal people.
However, it is difficult to establish cause and effect.

Question 30

Explain the element of neurochemistry (biological approach)

Answer 30

Neurotransmitter influence human behaviour by either increasing or decreasing activity in the brain.

For example: Low levels of serotonin (calming effect) are associated with depression. However, it is difficult to establish cause and effect.

Question 31

Explain the element of evolution (biological approach)

Answer 31

Evolution means that humans are a product of what has been passed down through our genes via natural selection.

Natural selection - the gradual process by which we inherit characteristics that offer some environmental advantage

Adaptive behaviour - behaviour that mean you are more likely to survive and pass on your genes

For example: attachment in new-borns promote survival

Question 32

Evaluate the biological approach

Answer 32

Strengths:
- Scientific and objective methods (scanning techniques, twin studies, drug trials, genetic testing)
- Real Life Application (development of psychoactive drugs)

Limitations:
- Difficult in establishing causal relationships
- biological determined (humans do not have a free will in that sense; problems with legal systems as there is no responsibility)

Question 33

Key facts about the Psychodynamic approach

Answer 33

• Put forward by Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939)
• The unconscious mind is the driving force behind all behaviour
• Abnormal behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts
• Therefore, behaviour is motivated by our natural instincts/drives
• Experiences in the early childhood are therefore crucial in shaping the personality

Question 34

Outline Freud´s view of the human mind (psychodynamic approach)

Answer 34

“The Mental Iceberg”

• Conscious mind (thoughts and feelings we are aware of)
• Preconscious mind (memories and knowledge we can access at any time we want)
• Unconscious mind (thoughts, feelings and memories that are locked away because they are too painful to remember)

Question 35

Outline Freud´s structure of personality (psychodynamic approach)

Answer 35

Our personality is made up of 3 interacting elements:
Id - entirely unconscious; pleasure driven; selfish part of our personality
Ego - conscious self; it grants needs of the ID only when it is sensible or rational to do so
Superego - part-conscious/part-unconscious; only grants needs of the Id when it is morally right to do so

These parts are in constant unconscious conflict for libido (psychosexual energy).
If the distribution of libido is equally distributed normal behaviour occurs, and vice versa.

Question 36

Explain the ego defence mechanism (psychodynamic approach)

Answer 36

The unconscious conflict between Id, Ego and Superego causes anxiety. To protect us from this conflict, the mind uses ego defence mechanism.
There are 3 mechanism:

Repression - Hurtful memories are pushed out of conscious recollection into the unconscious to protect oneself from the anxiety it would cause.

Denial - Unconsciously pretending that a problem does not exist to protect oneself from the anxiety it would cause to admit it.

Displacement - When a strong emotion is unconsciously passed from the object/person causing anxiety to a more acceptable target.

Question 37

Outline key facts about the psychosexual stages (psychodynamic approach)

Answer 37

During childhood, a person goes through the psychosexual stages which shape our personality. Successful completion in childhood will lead to normal behaviour whereby if unconscious conflicts arise (child is gratified or deprived), at any particular stage, the child becomes fixed to this stage resulting in abnormal behaviour in adulthood.

Question 38

Outline each of the psychosexual stages of development (psychodynamic approach)

Answer 38

Oral stage (0 - 18 months)
- focus is one the mouth
- fixation could occur if feeding patterns are irregular
- Oral gratification is gained from smoking, biting nails or chewing pens

Anal stage (18 months - 3 years)
- anus (pleasure is gained from expulsion or retention of faeces during potty training)
- fixation could occur if the child is overly keen to use the potty (expulsion) or potty training follows a strict regime
- Expulsion results in a generous, overly emotional adult
- Retention results in an organised, neat and thrifty adult

Phallic stage (3 years - 6 years)
- Genitals
- Boys experience the Oedipus Complex (wanting to have sex with their mother and disdains his father)
- Girls experience Electra Complex (close affections to their father because of the penis envy)
- Fixation could occur if there is no father figure and result in homosexuality

Latency (6 years - 12 years)
- The child develops the mastery of the world around them
- The conflict and issues of the previous stages are repressed (unable to remember early years)

Genital (12+ years)
- Sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
- Fixation here means to have difficulties to form heterosexual relationships

Question 39

Evaluate the psychodynamic approach

Answer 39

Strengths:
- Explanatory power of behaviours (support of later research of Bowlby´s theory of maternal deprivation)
- Real life application (New form of therapy: Psychoanalysis using hypnosis and dream analysis)

Limitations:
- psychic determinist (arguing that all behaviour is determined by unconscious conflict that are rooted in childhood)
- Freud´s use of case studies (his theory is based on a small number of case studies e.g. Little Hans)
- Psychoanalysis is culturally biased (Sue and Sue, 2008 suggest that different cultures handle mental disorders differently)

Question 40

Name key facts about the humanistic approach

Answer 40

• Brought forward by Maslow and Rogers
• They state that scientific methods are too objective to understand humans
• People are different and should be treated as unique individuals and also holistically
• People have free will (full conscious control over their own destiny)
• Humans are able to make significant personal choices even if biology and society affect behaviour as well

Question 41

Outline Maslow´s Hierarchy of Needs (humanistic approach)

Answer 41

5 needs that must be achieved in order to promote personal growth

Self-actualisation (desire to become the most that one can be)
Esteem (respect, self-esteem, status)
Love and belonging (relationships, family)
Safety needs (personal security, employment)
Physiological needs (air, water, food)

Question 42

Explain what is meant by congruence (humanistic approach)

Answer 42

When there is a similarity between a person´s self-concept and ideal self, a state of congruence (balance) exists. This leads to good psychological health.
If there is an unbalance a person is in the state of discomfort or incongruence.
Most people experience some incongruence but use defence mechanisms to feels less threatened.

Question 43

Explain the conditions of worth (humanistic approach)

Answer 43

Unconditional positive regard = a person is accepted for who they are or what they do.

Conditional positive regard = people experience this and develop conditions of worth

Conditions of Worth = requirements (real or perceived) that an individual feels they need to meet in order to be loved by others.

If an individual feels they need to meet these conditions of worth in order to be loved, they will struggle to achieve congruence.

Question 44

Explain the Focus and Self (humanistic approach)

Answer 44

The self (or self-concept) refers to how we perceive ourselves as a person.
There are three levels which we need to integrate to achieve self-actualisation:

The self-concept – the way you see yourself and is effected by self-esteem (e.g. Low self-esteem may lead to feeling less capable).

The Ideal self – This is the self you want to be (e.g. I wish I was more outgoing).

The real self – the self you actually are, not who you think you are (e.g. what others see of you such as being kind or generous).

Question 45

Explain Carl Rogers´ person-centred therapy (humanistic approach)

Answer 45

It involves honest therapeutic relationships in which the therapist shows unconditional positive regard for the client who, in turn, feels they can say anything without being judged.

The aim is to identify, discuss and eventually remove barriers to becoming congruent, including any real or perceived conditions of worth

Question 46

Evaluate the humanistic approach

Answer 46

Strengths:
- holistic/anti-reductionist (it takes all influences into account)
- acknowledges free will/anti-determinist (we choose how to behave and have complete control)

Limitations:
- limited real life application (little impact within the discipline of psychology; lack of supporting research)
- Culturally biased (values are associated with individualist cultures however, collectivist cultures have other values)
- Unfalsifiable/untestable constructs (the central approach is the subjective experiences of the individual = not objectively measurable)