MEMORY Flashcards

Question

Who came up with the Multi-store model of memory

Answer 1

Atkinson and Shiffrin

Answer 2

We repeat material to ourselves over and over again which keeps it in the STM. If it’s rehearsed long enough it will pass onto the LTM

Answer 3

Recalling information from the LTM into the STM

Answer 4

Strength - Support from other studies show STM and LTM are different > Baddeley (1966) we tend to mix words that sound similar when using STM but mix words with similar meanings when use LTM> STM and LTM are separate + independent memory stores -Extra evidence > Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) 2 groups ppt, 1 had immediate recall other had delay recall (counted backwards to prevent retrieval). Immediate = remembered 1st and last words. delayed = remembered word from beginning. both had difficulty remembering middle

Answer 5

-Uses non-meaningful info> everyday life we form memories related to useful things e.g. names, faces but MSM studies use letters, words (Baddeley), consonant syllables (peterson x2) and so have no meaning > MSM may not be a valid model of how memory works in our everyday life where we have to remember much more meaningful info -more than 1 STm store > Shallice and Warrington (1970) client KF had a clinical memory disorder . KF's STm for digits = very poor when read out to him but recall was better when he read digits to himself > further studies show there could be and STM store for non-verbal sounds > MSM is wrong claiming there's 1 STM store processing different types of info

Answer 6

A -prolonged rehearsal is not needed to transfer to LTM -Craik and Watkins found that the type of rehearsal is more important than the amount -Elaborative rehearsal is needed for long-term storage and this occurs when you link the information to existing knowledge or think about what it means -This suggests that the MSM does not fully explain how long-term storage is achieved

Answer 7

-Shallice and Warrington studied a client they referred to as KF who had amnesia -KF’s STM for digits was poor when they were read out loud to him but his recall was better when he read the digits to himself. -Further study of KF showed that there could even be another Short term store for non-verbal sounds -This evidence suggests that the MSM is wrong in claiming there is just one STM store processing different types of information.

Answer 8

-Studies show that the STM and LTM are different -Baddeley (1966) found that we tend to mix up similar sounding world when using our STM, but similar meaning words when using LTM -Further support in studies on capacity and duration -These studies show that STM and LTM are separate and independent memory stores

Answer 9

-Studies that support MSM used information that was not meaningful. -They used digits,letters and sometimes words. -This means that the MSM may not be a valid model of how memory works in our everyday lives

Answer 10

Episodic Semantic Procedural

Answer 11

Tulving (1985) realised that the MSM view of LTM was too simple and there must be multiple stores for different types of LTM.

Answer 12

-ability to recall personal events + also how events relocate to each other in time -most complex 1) time stamped - remember when they happened 2) memory of a single episode e.g. ppl or objects 3) need to make a conscious effort to recall epi memories - done quickly

Answer 13

-contains shared knowledge of the world eg meaning of words - less vulnerable to distortion, not time stamped, less personal, contains immerse collection of material which is always being added to

Answer 14

- memory for actions or skills - effort isn’t needed - once learnt how and without conscious awareness - may find it difficult to explain to someone else how it is done - if describe what you’re doing it may be more difficult

Answer 15

-Evidence from case studies of HM and clive wearing -episodic memory in both men was severely impaired due to brain damage -but their semantic memory and procedural memory was intact -Still understood the meaning of words -Didn’t recall stroking a dog half an hour ago but didn’t need to have the concept of a dog explained to him -This evidence supports Tulving’s view that there are different memory stores in LTM

Answer 16

-Studying people with brain injuries can help researchers understand memory -Lack control variables -The brain injuries experiences were usually unexpected -Researcher had no way of controlling what happened to the participant before or during the injury - no knowledge of the individuals memory before the injury -This lack of control limits what clinical studies can tell us about different types of LTM

Answer 17

-conflicting research findings linking types of LTM to areas of the brain -Buckner and Petersen reviewed evidence regarding the location of semantic and episodic memory. -Concluded semantic memory is located in the left side of the prefrontal cortex and episodic is on the right -Other researchers found that the left prefrontal cortex is linked to encoding of episodic memory and the right with episodic retrieval -This challenges any neurophysiological evidence to support types of memory

Answer 18

-Allows psychologists to help people with memory problems -E.g as people age they experience memory loss. But research has shown this seems to be specific to the episodic memory -Belleville derived an intervention to improve episodic memory in older people by training participants on a episodic memory test. -This shows that distinguishing between types of LTM enables specific treatments to be developed.

Answer 19

A representation of short-term memory. It suggests that STM is a dynamic processor of different types of information using subunits co-ordinated by a central decision-making system.

Answer 20

The component of the WMM that co-ordinate’s the activities of the three subsystems in memory. It also allocates processing resources to those activities.

Answer 21

The component of the WMM that processes information in terms of sound. This includes both written and spoken material. It’s divided into the phonological store and articulatory process.

Answer 22

The “Inner Ear” Stores words you hear

Answer 23

The “Inner Voice” -Allows maintenance rehearsal to keep information in working memory. -Capacity of about 2 seconds’ worth of sounds

Answer 24

The component of the WMM that processes visual and spatial information in a mental space often called our ‘inner eye’

Answer 25

The Visual Cache Stores visual data (e.g. form and colour) The Inner Scribe Records the arrangement of objects in the visual field.

Answer 26

The component of the WMM that brings together material from the other subsystems into a single memory rather than separate strands. It also provides a bridge between working memory and long-term memory.

Answer 27

-support from Tim Shallice and Elizabeth Warrington’s (1970) case study of patient KF. -KF had poor STM ability for auditory (sound) information but could process visual information normally. -For instance his immediate recall of letters and digits was better when he read them (visual) than when they were read to him (acoustic). -KF’s phonological loop was damaged but his visuo-spatial sketchpad was intact. -This finding strongly supports the existence of separate visual and acoustic memory stores.

Answer 28

-it is unclear whether KF had other cognitive impairments (apart from damage to his phonological loop) -might have affected his performance on memory tasks. -E.g, his injury was caused by a motorcycle accident. The trauma involved may have affected his cognitive performance quite apart from any brain injury. -This challenges evidence that comes from clinical studies of people with brain injuries that may have affected many different systems.

Answer 29

-studies of dual-task performance support the separate existence of the visuo-spatial sketchpad. -Baddeley et al’s (1975) participants carried out a visual and verbal task at the same time (dual task), their performance on each was similar to when they carried out the tasks separately. But when both tasks were visual (or both were verbal), performance on both declined substantially. -This is because both visual tasks compete for the same subsystem, whereas there is no competition when performing a verbal and visual task together -This shows there must be a separate subsystem (the VSS) that processes visual input (and one for verbal processing, the PL).

Answer 30

-lack of clarity of the central executive (CE) -Baddeley (2003) himself recognised this when he said, ‘The central executive is the most important but the least understood component of working memory” -The CE needs to be more clearly specified than just being simply ‘attention’ For example, some psychologists believe the CE may consist of separate subcomponents. This means that the CE is an unsatisfactory component and this challenges the integrity of the WMM.

Answer 31

Baddeley and Hitch

Answer 32

-Monitors incoming data -divides our limited attention -allocates subsystems to tasks

Answer 33

Robert Logie

Answer 34

Forgetting because one memory blocks another,causing one or both memories to be distorted or forgotten

Answer 35

Forgetting occurs when older memories, already stored disrupt the recall of newer memories. The degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar

Answer 36

Forgetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories already stored. The degree of forgetting is again greater when the memories are similar

Answer 37

Studies retroactive interference by getting participants to learn a list of 10 words until they could remember them with 100% accuracy and then learning a new list. There were six groups, who had to learn different types of words (synonyms, antonyms, three digit numbers)

Answer 38

When participants were asked to recall the original list of words, the most similar materials (synonyms) produced the worst recall. Showing that inference is strongest when the memories are similar

Answer 39

two possible reasons: Proactive interference – previously stored information makes new similar information more difficult to store. Retroactive interference – new information overwrites similar memories due to similarity.

Answer 40

-Evidence of interference effects in everyday situations -Baddley & Hitch (1977) asked Rugby Players to remember who they played against. -Players had played different numbers of games over the season due to injury -Players who had played the most games had the poorest recall -Increases the validity of the theory

Answer 41

-interference may cause some forgetting in everyday situations but is unusual -Conditions necessary for interference to occur are relatively rare -Unlike lab studies where the high degree of control means a researcher can create ideal conditions for interference -Suggests that most forgetting may be better explained by other theories such as retrieval failure due to lack of cues.

Answer 42

-Interference is temporary and can be overcome using cues. -Tulving & Psotka (1971) gave participants lists of words in different categories. -Recall of first list ~70%. Became progressively worse for each new list they learnt -When a cue (name of category) was given, recall for later lists rose to ~70%. - This shows that interference causes a temporary loss of accessibility to material that is still in the LTM

Answer 43

-Evidence of retrograde facilitation -Coenen & van Luijtelaar (1997) gave participants a list of words and later asked them to recall the list -Found when the list of words was learned under the influence of diazepam recall one week later was poor -but when learnt one week before recall was better (improved recall of material learned beforehand) -This finding shows that forgetting can be due to interference- reduce the interference and reduce the forgetting

Answer 44

-retroactive interference is where a newer memory disrupts an older memory: the older information is forgotten -retroactive interference is greater when the two lots of information are similar -retroactive interference is less likely to occur when there is a gap between the instances of learning.

Answer 45

Recall of information previously stored in memory.

Answer 46

a trigger of information that allows us to access a memory. Such cues may be meaningful or may be indirectly linked by being encoded at the time of learning

Answer 47

Forgetting may be due to insufficient cues at the time of recall. i.e. the memory has been stored, but you don’t have the right cues to access it again.

Answer 48

Tulving found a consistent pattern: For a cue to be helpful, it has to be present at encoding (ie learning) and retrieval (ie recall). Cues are encoded at the time of learning. They can be meaningful (linked to the information being remembered) or indirect.

Answer 49

Recall depends on external cues (Weather, sounds, smell)

Answer 50

Recall depends on internal cues (Feeling upset, being drunk)

Answer 51

studied deep-sea divers to see how learning on land affected work under water. Divers learned a list of words on land or underwater, then had to recall on land or underwater.

Answer 52

Accurate recall was 40% lower when learning and recall conditions did not match.

Answer 53

Gave participants antihistamine drugs – produced a slightly drowsy state (different to ‘normal’ state). Participants had to learn lists of words and prose passages, then recall them, in one of the two states.

Answer 54

When the state during learning was different to the state during recall, recall was significantly worse.

Answer 55

-Retrieval cues can help recall in real world situations. -Baddeley suggests although the effect of cues on forgetting is not very strong, they are still worth paying attention to. -e.g. you go to collect something from another room, but when you get there you have forgotten what. Then if you go back to the room you were in, you remember straight away. -This shows how research can remind us of strategies we use in the real world to improve our recall

Answer 56

-A range of evidence supports retrieval failure as an explanation of forgetting. -Godden & Baddeley (1975) and Carter & Cassaday (1998) are just two examples as they show that a lack of relevant cues at recall can lead to forgetting -Eysenck & Keane (2010) argue retrieval failure may be the most significant cause of forgetting in LTM. -This evidence shows retrieval failure occurs in real world situations as well as highly-controlled lab studies.

Answer 57

-Baddeley argues effect of retrieval cues on forgetting is not that strong. -Contexts have to be very different (e.g. land vs underwater) before an effect is seen. -Learning in one room and recalling in another is unlikely to have a strong effect because the environments aren’t different enough -This means retrieval failure due to a lack of context-dependent cues may not describe much forgetting in real life.

Answer 58

A -Effects of context-dependent cues may depend on the type of memory being tested. -Godden & Baddeley (1980) replicated their 1975 study, but divers had to say if they recognised words read to them, rather than recalling the words themselves. -Participants given lists of words in different categories. -When recognition was required, there was no significant difference between the conditions. -So context-dependent cues may be a limited explanation of forgetting when recall is required.

Answer 59

A form of forgetting. It occurs when we don’t have the necessary cues to access memory. The memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided

Answer 60

Godden and Baddeley

Answer 61

Carter and Cassaday

Answer 62

45 participants watched videos of staged car accidents. Researchers asked questions about the accident. Participants were asked a leading question About how fast were the cars going when they _____________ each other? eg hit , smash , bumped

Answer 63

-learn on land-recall on land -learn on land- recall underwater -learn underwater- recall on land -learn underwater- recall underwater

Answer 64

-learn on drugs-recall when on drugs -learn on drugs-recall when not on drugs -Learn not on drugs- recall when on drugs -learn not on drugs-recall when not on drugs

Answer 65

The mean estimated for the speed was calculated for each participant group. The more violent the verb the faster the mean average was.

Answer 66

-Response-bias explanation suggests: Wording has no effect on the actual memory, but influences how they choose to answer. - Loftus and palmer conducted a second experiment that supported: Substitution explanation Wording alters the memory of an incident. Eg participants who heard smashed more likely to report seeing broken glass when there as none - the critical verb altered their memory of the incident

Answer 67

-Gabbert (2003) -Pairs of participants watched videos of a crime from different perspectives - so ppt saw details the other did not. Participants then discussed what they had seen in their pairs.

Answer 68

-Memory contamination The memory of an event is distorted by details from others witnesses when these are combined with the original memory. -Memory conformity Witnesses may go along with each other to gain social acceptance or because they believe other accounts are more correct. The actual memory is unchanged, but reporting of it is affected. -Source Monitoring Eyewitnesses can recall information about the event, but not where it came from (their own memory of the event of from someone else’s account (known as source confusion). The memory is distorted as the source information is lost.

Answer 69

71% of participants incorrectly recalled details they had not seen (so had picked up from discussion). (For control group = 0%)

Answer 70

Occurs when there is more than one witness to an event. Witnesses may discuss what they have seen with co-witnesses or with other people. This may influence the accuracy of each witness’s recall of the event.

Answer 71

A question which because of the way its phrased suggests a certain answer.

Answer 72

-Has important practical uses in the criminal justice system. -The consequences of inaccurate EWT can be very serious. -Loftus (1975) believes police officers need to be very careful about how they phrase their questions when interviewing eyewitnesses. -Psychologists are sometimes asked to act as expert witnesses in court trials and explain the limits of EWT to juries. -This shows that psychologists can help to improve the way the legal system works, especially by protecting innocent people from faulty convictions based on unreliable EWT.

Answer 73

-However, the practical applications of EWT may be affected by issues with research. -Loftus and Palmers’ participants watched film clips in a lab, a very different experience from witnessing a real event. -Foster et al. (1994) point out that what eyewitnesses remember in research do not matter in the same way as in the real world (so research participants are less motivated to be accurate). -This suggests that researchers such as Lotus are too pessimistic about the effects of misleading information - EWT may be more dependable than many studies suggest.

Answer 74

-EWT is more accurate for some aspects of an event than for others. -Sutherland and Hayne (2001) showed participants a video clip. When participants were later asked misleading questions, their recall was more accurate for central details of the event than for peripheral ones. -Presumably the participants’ attention was focused on central features of the event and these memories were relatively resistant to misleading information. -This suggests that the original memories for central details survived and were not distorted, an outcome that is not predicted by the substitution explanation.

Answer 75

-evidence that post-event discussion actually alters EWT. -Skagerberg and Wright (2008) showed their participants film clips. There were two versions, e.g. a mugger’s hair was dark brown in one but light brown in the other. Participants discussed the clips in pairs, each having seen different versions. They often did not report what they had seen in the clips or what they had heard from the co-witness, but a ‘blend of the two. -This suggests that the memory itself is distorted through contamination by misleading post-event discussion, rather than the result of memory conformity.

Answer 76

The ability of people to remember the details of events such as accidents and crimes which they themselves have observed. Accuracy of EWT can be affected by factors such as misleading information and anxiety

Answer 77

Incorrect information given to an eyewitness usually after the event. It can take many forms such as leading questions and post event discussion between co-witnesses and other people

Answer 78

A question which because of the way its phrased suggests a certain answer.

Answer 79

A state of emotional and physical arousal. The emotions include having worried thoughts and feelings of tension.

Answer 80

*Procedure -Johnson and Scott -one group seated in a waiting room participants heard a casual conversation in the next room and then saw a man walk past them carrying a pen and with grease on his hands= low anxiety condition -Other participants overheard a heated argument, accompanied by the sound of breaking glass. A man walked out of the room, holding a knife covered in blood =high-anxiety condition. *Findings and conclusion -participants later picked out the man from a set of 50 photos - 49% who had seen the man carrying the pen were able to identify him. -participants who had seen the man holding the blood-covered knife was 33%. -The tunnel theory of memory= people have enhanced memory for central events

Answer 81

*Procedure -Yuille and Cutshall -conducted a study of an actual shooting in a gun shop in Canada. -The shop owner shot a thief dead. -There were 21 witnesses - 13 took part in the study. -They were interviewed four to five months after the incident and these interviews were compared with the original police interviews -The witnesses were also asked to rate how stressed they had felt at the time of the incident (on a 7-point scale) *Findings and conclusion -The witnesses were very accurate in their accounts and there was little change in the amount recalled or accuracy after five months -Those participants who reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate (about 88% compared to 75% for the less-stressed group)

Answer 82

-Yerkes and Dodson= relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like an inverted U -there is an optimal level of anxiety, which is the point of maximum accuracy. -If a person (or eyewitness) experiences any more arousal, then their recall suffers a drastic decline.

Answer 83

-May not have tested anxiety -Pickel’s experiment,Weapons are unusual – Johnson & Scott (1976) may have been measuring this effect, rather than anxiety. -Hair salon video featuring a handheld item: Scissors (high anxiety, low unusualness) Wallet (low anxiety, low unusualness) Hand gun (high anxiety, high unusualness) Raw chicken (low anxiety, high unusualness) -Recall was poorer in both unusual situations. -So J&S tell us nothing specifically about the effect of anxiety on EWT.

Answer 84

-More support for positive effects -Christianson & Hübinette (1993) Interviewed 58 witnesses to bank robberies in Sweden -Some directly involved, some indirectly involved. -Researchers assumed those directly involved had higher anxiety. -Recall was 75% across all witnesses. Direct witnesses recall was even higher. -Findings from actual crimes support the idea that anxiety does not have a negative effect on recall, and can have a positive effect.

Answer 85

-Problems with Christianson & Hubinette (1993) research -Length of time between robbery and interview (4-15 months) -Researchers had no control over confounding variables in that time (e.g. post-event discussion). -Results might be to do with these confounding variables - invalidates their support of the theory.

Answer 86

-strength -evidence supporting the view that anxiety has a negative effect on the accuracy of recall. -Valentine and Mesout supports the research on weapon focus, finding negative effects on recall. -In their study anxiety clearly disrupted the participants’ ability to recall details about the actor in the London Dungeons’ Labyrinth. -This suggests that a high level of anxiety does have a negative effect on the immediate eyewitness recall of a stressful event.

Answer 87

A method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories. It uses four main techniques, all based on evidence-based psychological knowledge of human memory - report everything, reinstate the context, reverse the order and change perspective.

Answer 88

-- 105 Q what are the four main techniques that are used in cognitive interview and elaborate on them 1)Report everything -Witnesses are encouraged to include every single detail of the event -trivial details may be important and, moreover, they may trigger other important memories. 2) Reinstate the context -witness should return to the original crime scene in their mind’ and imagine the environment and their emotions -This is related to context-dependent forgetting 3) Reverse the order -Events should be recalled in a different order from the original sequence -This is done to prevent people reporting their expectations of how the event must have happened rather than reporting the actual events 4) Change perspective -Witnesses should recall the incident from other people’s perspectives -is done to disrupt the effect of expectations and also the effect of schema on recall. -The schema you have for a particular setting generate expectations of what would have happened

Answer 89

-Fisher et al. developed some additional elements of the Cl -e.g. the interviewer needs to know when to establish eye contact and when to relinquish it. -also includes ideas such as reducing eyewitness anxiety, minimising distractions, getting the witness to speak slowly and asking open-ended questions.

Answer 90

evidence that it works. -a meta-analysis by Köhnken et al. (1999) combined data from 55 studies comparing the CI (and the ECI) with the standard police interview. -The CI gave an average 41% increase in accurate information compared with the standard interview. -Only four studies in the analysis showed no difference between the types of interview. -This shows that the CI is an effective technique in helping witnesses to recall information thaat is stored in memory (available) but not immediately accessible.

Answer 91

-Köhnken et al. also found an increase in the amount of inaccurate information recalled by participants. -This was a particular issue in the ECI, which produced more incorrect details than the CI. -Cognitive interviews may sacrifice quality of EWT (i.e. accuracy) in favour of quantity (amount of details). -This means that police officers should treat eyewitness evidence from CIs/ECIs w

Answer 92

-not all of its elements are equally effective or useful. -Milne and Bull (2002) found that each of the four techniques used alone produced more information than the standard police interview. But they also found that using a combination of report everything and reinstate the context produced better recall than any of the other elements or combination of them. -This confirmed police officers’ suspicions that some aspects of the Cl are more useful than others. -This casts some doubt on the credibility of the overall cognitive interview.

Answer 93

-police officers may be reluctant to use the CI because it takes more time and training than the standard police interview. -more time is needed to establish rapport with a witness and allow them to relax. The Cl also requires special training and many forces do not have the resources to provide more than a few hours (Kebbell and Wagstaff 1997). -This suggests that the complete Cl as it exists is not a realistic method for police officers to use and (as in the point above) it might be better to focus on just a few key elements.