FORENSICS Flashcards
1
Q
What is offender profiling
A
behavioural and analytical tool intended to help investigators accurately predict and profile characteristics of unknown offenders
2
Q
aim of offender profiling
A
narrow down field of enquiry to a list of likely suspects
3
Q
What do offender profilers generate
A
work alongside police to generate hypothesis at to who committed the crime
4
Q
what to offender profilers compile
A
compile a profile about the offenders age, race, occupation, motives,etc
5
Q
process of top-down approach in America
A
-devised by FBI (1970s)
-utilise data gathered from 36 interviews of sexually motivated serial killers inc Ted Bundy and Charles Manson
-data was categorised into organised and disorganised crime
-each category had certain characteristics meaning future crime scenes could be compared to these to help predict other characteristics and help find the offenders
5
Q
How do offender profilers achieve this
A
-utilise crime scenes and other evidence including witness reports to achieve this
6
Q
What do organised offenders show
A
-evidence of planning
-target of specific victim
-tend to be socially and sexuallly competent with higher than average intelligence
7
Q
What do disorganised offenders show
A
-little evidence of planning
-leave clues
-tend to be socially and secually incompetent with lower than average intelligence
8
Q
what is it argued about organised and disorganised offenders
A
they have ‘ways of working’ which are known as modus operandi
9
Q
organised offender characteristics
A
-above average intelligence
-controlled even in the attack that looks frenzied
-in skilled/professional job
-mostly married with kids
-well thought of in the community
-organised about attach,bring instruments,escape plan etc
10
Q
disorganised offender characteristics
A
-low skills job /unemployed
-social/sexual issues
-frenzied in attacks
-no real plan, impulsive attacks
-probably has a criminal record
-leaves clues at crime scene
-lives close to scene
11
Q
Constructing an FBI profile
A
-Data assimilation: profiler reviews evidence from crime
scenes photos, pathology reports etc.
-Crime scene classification: either organised or disorganised
-Crime reconstruction: hypotheses in terms of sequence of
events, behaviour of victim etc.
-Profile generation: hypothesis related to the offender e.g.
age, social class, physical and behavioural characteristics.
12
Q
+ research support for top-down approach
A
-support for the
organised category of offender.
-To test this typology, Canter et al, analysed 100 US murders each
committed by a different serial killer using a technique called smallest
space analysis. This identifies correlations across different samples of behaviours and in this instance was able to assess the co-occurrence of 39 aspects of serial killings.
-included things such as torture and restraint, an attempt to conceal the body, the murder weapon used and the cause of death.
This analysis does seem to be a subset of features of many serial killers which match the typology for organised offenders.
-This therefore suggests this typology has some validity.
13
Q
- Counterpoint to the research support of top-down approach
A
-However, other studies argued that the organised and disorganised
types are not mutually exclusive as there are a variety of combinations
that occur at a murder scene.
-Godwin, believes that in reality, it is difficult to classify killers as one or
the other believing this should work on a continuum.
-A killer may have multiple contrasting characteristics – for example, may be highly
intelligent but commits a spontaneous murder leaving the body at the crime scene.
14
Q
+ wider application of top-down approach
A
- has been adapted to solve other types of crimes including burglary.
-Critics say it can only apply to a certain number of crimes such as
sexually motivated murder, however Meketa demonstrated 85%
burglaries were resolved in 3 states in America through this technique.
-This retained the original organised/disorganised offender typology but also added ‘interpersonal’ and ‘opportunistic’.
Interpersonal – the offender usually knows their victim and steals
something of significance.
Opportunistic – generally inexperienced young offender.
-This therefore suggests that the top down approach has wider
application than it originally illustrated.
15
Q
- flawed evidence for top-down approach
A
-it is said to be based on flawed
evidence.
-The FBI worked with the 36 murderers, 25 of which were serial killers whilst the remaining 11 were single, or double murderers - 24 were
classified as organised and 12 as disorganised.
-Their selection was
therefore limited - the sample was not random, small in number as
well as only including murderers. Moreover, there was not a standard
set of questions meaning each interview was different meaning the
findings are difficult to compare.
-This therefore suggests that the top down approach is based on
unscientific evidence.
16
Q
purpose of bottom-up approach
A
generate a picture of the offender i.e.
Characteristics, routines, behaviour by using psychological theory and
systematic investigation (evidence found at crime scenes)
17
Q
difference between bottom-up and top-down approach
A
Unlike the US top-down approach, the British bottom up does not begin with fixed typologies.
18
Q
Investigative psychology
A
Form of bottom up profiling that matches details from the crime
scene with statistical analysis of typical offender behaviour patterns
based in psychological theory
19
Q
aim of investigative psychology
A
-to establish patterns of
behaviour that are likely to occur across crime scenes to allow a
baseline for comparison.
-Specific details of an offence, can then be matched against this database to reveal important details about their offender, their personal live and background to determine whether a series of offences are linked in that they are likely to have been committed by the same person.
20
Q
interpersonal coherence in investigative psychology
A
Interpersonal coherence – the way an offender behaves at the crime
scene, including how they ‘interact’ with the victim may reflect how
they behave in everyday life.
For example, some rapists need to degrade their victims and maximum
control some rapists apologise through the ordeal. This could link to
the status, and success of their romantic relationships.
21
Q
how does investigative psychology work
A
All of the information is acquired and placed into a database .
This will be used to check if the crime scene is familiar with any other
ones
The time and place may be significant, the geographical location could also give clues as to where the offender is living.
22
Q
stages of investigative psychology
A
1)Go to the crime scene and collect the evidence
2)Compare the evidence with previous crimes stored in the database
3)Establish if the crime scene is similar with any other ones
4)Create a typology.
23
Q
Geographical profiling
A
- A form of bottom up profiling based on the principle of spatial consistency - an offender’s operational base and possible future offences are revealed by the geographical location of their previous crime.
-Crime Mapping - utilising the information about the location of crime scenes to make inferences about the home/base of an offender.
-Based on the principle of spatial consistency – people commit crimes within a limited geographical space.
-Used alongside investigative psychology to create hypothesis to determine the offenders thinking as well as modus operandi.
24
More on geographical profiling
-Summation is that the perpetrator will stay on to an area they are comfortable with to commit crimes
-Their ‘centre of gravity’ in their home
-crime mapping involves plotting the location of linked crimes to create a ‘jeopardy surface’
-this info can help the police to guess where the perpetrator will strike next
25
Canter’s circle theory assumption
-Pattern of offending forms a circle around the offenders home
-circle appears with regards to crimes (spatial pattern), the more crimes committed the easier to plot
26
Canters Circle theory - The marauder
Operates in close proximity to their home base
27
Canter’s circle theory - the commuter
Likely to have travelled a distance away from their residence
28
What can canter’s circle theory lead to
Figure out social background, mode of transport , work type etc
29
(+) bottom up approach - evidence for investigative psychology
-Carter + Heritage identified several common behaviours of offenders from 66 assault cases by using smallest space analysis
-several behaviours identified as common in different samples of behaviour eg use of impersonal language and lack of reaction to victim
-each individual displayed characteristic pattern of such behaviours that can be used to establish whether 2/more offenses were committed by same person (case linkage)
-supports idea that people are consistent with their behaviour
30
(-) Counter point to evidence for investigative psychology - bottom up approach
-case linkage depends on database which consists of historical crimes that have been solved m
-they were solved perhaps because it was relatively straightforward to link these crimes together
-make this a circular argument
-investigative psychology may tell us little about crimes that have few links between then and therefore remain unsolved
31
(+) bottom up approach - evidence for geographical profiling
-Canter at al collected info from 120 murder cases involving serial killers in US
-smallest space analysis revealed spatial consistency in behaviour of killers
-location of disposal allowed them to see the circle around the home, esp noticable with those who were murderers
-supports view that geographical info can be used to identify an offender
32
(-) bottom-up approach - geographical profiling may not be sufficient
-may be reliant on quality of data police can provide
-recording of crime is not always accurate ~75% crimes not even reported to police at first place
-questions utility of the approach that relies on the accuracy of geographical data
-even if this info is correct, antics claim other factors are just as important in creating a profile eg timing of the offence and age and experience of offender
-so geographical info alone may not always lead to successful capture of offender
33
Atavistic form - historical approach
-Cesare Lombroso in 1876 suggested that criminals were ‘genetic throwbacks’ – a primitive sub species who were biologically
different from non-criminals.
He wrote a book called “L’Uomo Delinquente”, roughly
translated as ‘the criminal man’’.
His suggestion is however hugely criticised today for being
speculative and naïve!
34
atavistic form - biological approach
- Offenders were seen by Lombroso as lacking evolutionary development, as their savage and untamed nature meant they could not conform to society. Instead, they turned to crime.
-As such, Lombroso believed offenders were caused by genetics
suggesting criminal behaviour was innate.
35
what does atavistic form consider
-Lombroso believed criminals could be identified by having
specific physiological markers that were linked to particular
offences!
-Individuals were distinguishable by particular facial and cranial
characteristics.
36
Criminal characteristics -cranial
-Narrow, sloping brows
-Strong, prominent jaw
-High cheekbones
-Facial asymmetry
37
criminal characteristics - physical
-Dark skin
-Extra toes, nipples and fingers
38
criminal characteristics - other
-Insensitive to pain
-Used slang
-Had tattoos
-Unemployed
39
characteristic of murderer
bloodshot eyes, curly hair and long ears
40
characteristics of sexual deviants
glinting eyes, and swollen, fleshy lips
41
characteristics of fraudsters
Thin and reedy lips
42
Lombroso’s research on atavistic form
-Completed an examination of the facial and cranial features of
Italian convicts (383 dead convicts and 3839 living) to conclude there was an atavistic form.
-Concluded 40% crimes are committed by people with atavistic characteristics.
43
+ atavistic form - Lombroso’s legacy & criticism
-Lombroso is considered to be the ‘father of modern criminology’.
-He is said to have shifted the emphasis in crime research away from moral discourse (suggesting offenders were wicked and weak minded) towards a scientific position (blaming evolution and genetics).
-However, critics of Lombroso describe him as racist due to his atavistic characteristics most likely to be found in those of African descent. This fitted with
the eugenic attitude of the 19th century suggesting his theory is subjective rather than objective, influenced by prejudice.
-Eugenics - the suggestion that it is possible to improve humankind by allowing only
some people to produce children.
44
- atavistic form - contradictory evidence
- Another physician, Goring, also set out to establish whether
there are any other physical characteristics typical of offenders.
-He completed a comparison of 3000 offenders, and 3000
non-offenders concluding there are no distinct cranial
characteristics. He did however believe offenders had below
average intelligence.
45
- atavistic form - poor control
-Lombroso failed to control key variables.
-Unlike Goring, he did not compare his sample to non-offenders
thus lacking a control group.
-Confounding variables were also ignored – eg. Demographic
poor social conditions such as poverty and lack of education
could contribute to why offenders tend to be unemployed.
46
- atavistic form - nature vs nurture
-Lombroso’s suggestion of the atavistic form is biological -
criminals are born, not made (nature).
-However poor diet and poverty could also contribute to the
physical features which is therefore due to nurture.
47
genetic explanation of offending suggests what
would-be offenders inherit a gene, or combination of genes that predispose them to commit crime
48
genetic explanation of offending - twin + adoption studies
-Lange (1930) 13 MZ twins and 17 DZ twins where one of the twins in each pair has
spent time in prison. 10 of the MZ twins and but only 2 of the DZ twins had a
co-twin that had also spent time in prison, suggesting a genetic link.
-Christiansen (1977) studied over 3500 Danish twin pairs finding concordance rates
for offender behaviour in 35% MZ twin males and 13% for non-identical twin males,
with slightly lower rates for females, again supporting the view that offending may
have a genetic component. This was supported by Danish police records.
-Crowe (1972) found that adopted children whose biological mother had a criminal
record had a 50% risk of having a criminal record by 18 whereas adopted children
whose biological mother did not have a criminal record only had a 5% risk.
49
genetic explanations of offending - candidate gene
-Tiihonen completed a genetic analysis of almost 800 Finnish offenders
suggesting that two genes are associate with violent crime.
-MAOA – this regulates serotonin in the brain and has been linked to aggressive behaviour.
-CDH13 – this is linked to substance abuse and ADHD.
-5-10% violent crime in Finland is attributed to these genotypes.
50
genetic explanations of offending - diathesis stress model
-Offending behaviour is explained by a combination of genetic predisposition (diathesis) and a biological or psychological trigger (stress).
-Being raised in a dysfunctional family or having criminal role models.
51
support for diathesis stress model
Danish study - Mednick et al in their adoption study of 13000 adoptees found that when neither biological parent had convictions – 13.5 % of
adoptees did.
-20% when either of the biological parents did.
-24.5% when both biological parents did.
-This suggests that although genetics do play a part in offending the
environmental influence cannot be ignored – support for the diathesis
stress model.
52
problems with adoption studies
-Issues with twin evidence arise with the assumption they have an equal environment.
-This is especially so with MZ twins because they look the same so people may treat then similarly which could therefore suggest that the high concordance rates in twin studies is due to their environment rather than
their genetics.
-Moreover, the concordance rates in MZ twins are not high enough to suggest
genetics are solely to blame, leaving room for non-genetic environmental
factors
53
Problems with adoption studies
Many adoptees are adopted late so spend their infancy with their biological parents
anyway. Some also maintain regular contact with their biological parents. This means that
the parents may have had an environmental rather than biological impact. (Contamination
effect)
54
Neural explanations
Evidence suggests that there might be neural differences between criminals
and non-criminals.
Neural differences – dysfunction of the brain and nervous system which
includes the activity of the prefrontal cortex and neurotransmitters such as
serotonin and dopamine.
Much of this evidence is based on studies into those who have anti-social
personality disorder (APD) (aka psychopathy)
APD is associated with reduced emotional response, a lack of empathy for
feelings of others and is a condition that often characterises many convicted
criminals.
55
Pre Frontal Cortex and neural explanation
Individuals who experience APD show reduced
activity in the Pre Frontal Cortex.
This is the part of the brain that regulates
emotional behaviour according to Raine, who has
stated there were several dozen imaging studies
which demonstrate this.
Raine (2000) found an 11%
reduction in the volume of grey
matter in the PFC of people
with APD compared to control
groups, suggesting this was the
reason for their offending.
56
neural explanation - mirror neurones
A mirror neuron is “a special brain cell” which is activated in response to
personal actions or by watching the actions of others.
Monkey and lunch example! More info on this on page 190.
Research from Keysers has shown that offender with APD can experience
empathy but only when ‘asked’. In this instance, ‘asked’ refers to
watching someone experience pain on a film.
This suggests that although criminals can and do experience empathy, it
is not an automatic response. It seems they have a neural switch that can
be turned on and off, whereas in non criminals this empathy switch
remains permanently switched on.
57
+ neural explanations - brain evidence
Kandel and Freed provide support for frontal lobe damage causing
antisocial behaviour. People suffering with this tend to be impulsive,
emotional and show an inability to learn from mistakes, thus showing
damage to the frontal lobe could be a reason behind offending
behaviour.
58
- neural explanations - intervening variables
There may be other factors which cause APD and ultimately to
offending.
Farrington studied a group of men who scored high for APD and found
their childhood experiences could be a factor to cause their offending
behaviour. Some had experienced being raised by a convicted parent
whilst others had been neglected, suggesting that there are other
variables to be considered.
59
Eysenck's theory is described as what
-bio-social theory.
-He theorised that personality traits are biological and
come about depending on the kind of nervous system we inherit, suggesting all personality types are inherently biological including the criminal personality.
60
Eysenck proposed that behaviour could be represented along two
dimensions which are
-Introversion -Extraversion (E)
-Neuroticism – Stability (N)
-The two dimensions combine to
form a variety of personality
characteristics or traits.
-Eysenck later added a third
dimension –
psychoticism-sociability (P)
61
Neurotics
unstable and therefore prone to overreact to threatening
situations.
62
Extraverts
seek more arousal and engage in dangerous activities.
63
Psychotics
aggressive and lack empathy.
64
role of socialisation in Eysenck's theory
-personality is linked to offending behaviour via
socialisation processes.
-believes offenders are impatient and cannot wait for things therefore due to their selfish nature and need for immediate gratification, their behaviour is considered developmentally immature.
-believes people with high E and N scores have nervous systems that made them difficult to condition. They therefore do not have the anxiety responses to deal with the antisocial impulses and consequently will act
antisocially if the opportunity presents itself.
65
+ eysenck's theory - research support
-Eysenck and Eysenck, compared 2070 prisoners scores on the EPQ with 2422 controls.
-Prisoners scored higher on all measures in comparison to the controls.
-This agrees with the prediction of the theory that offenders rate higher than average across the three dimensions.
66
- counterpoint to eysenck's research support
-However Farrington conducted a meta-analysis of relevant studies and found that offenders tended to score high on psychoticism but not for
extraversion and neuroticism.
-There is also inconsistent evidence on EEG measures between extraverts and introverts causing doubt on Eysenck’s theory.
-These two concerns therefore challenge some of the main assumptions of the criminal personality theory.
67
- eysenck's theory - too simplistic
-simplistic when considering that
personality is only one factor involved in causing a person’s behaviour.
-Moffitt argued that personality traits were a poor predictor of ‘career offenders’ and instead believes that the traits combined with the environment cause a person to move from adolescence to adulthood
committing crimes. She distinguished between adolescence limited
offenders and life-course-persistent offenders suggesting the environment helped to cause the latter.
-This is therefore a more complex explanation that the criminal personality one and suggests both nature and nurture are the cause of
offending behaviour.
68
-Eysenck's theory - cultural factors
-ignores cultural factors with
offending individuals not necessarily showing the
neurotic-extrovert-psychotic type.
-Bartol and Holanchock studied Hispanic and African American
offenders in a New York high security prison separating them into 6 groups. They were found to be less extrovert than the control group of non offenders suggesting the NEP type is not typical of all offenders and the criminal personality should not be generalised to all criminals.
69
Kohlberg's moral reasoning refers to what
-the way a person thinks about right or wrong. It is presumed this thinking is then applied to behaviour.
-The higher the level, the more that behaviour is driven by a sense of what is right and less driven by avoiding punishment or disapproval.
70
what did kohlberg propose
-Kohlberg proposed that people’s decisions and judgements on what is
right and wrong can be summarised in a stage theory of moral reasoning.
The higher the stage, the more sophisticated the reasoning.
71
level 1 of moral reasoning
-preconventional morality
-stage 1 = punishment orientation >rules are obeyed to avoid punishment
-stage 2 = instrumental orientation/ personal gain > rules are obeyed for personal gain
72
level 2 of moral reasoning
-conventional morality
-stage 3 = 'good boy' or 'good girl' orientation > rules are obeyed for approval
-stage 4 = maintenance of the social order > rules are obeyed to maintain social order
73
level 3 of moral reasoning
-post-conventional morality
-stage 5 = morality of contract and individual rights > rules are challenged if they infringe on the rights of others
-stage 6 = morality of conscience > individuals have a personal set of ethical principles
74
what does moral reasoning explain offending behaviour
-offenders tend to show a lower level of moral reasoning that
non-offenders
-with Kohlberg’s research showing a group of violent
youths were at a significantly lower level of moral development than
non-violent youths.
-This theory is based on the Heinz dilemma.
75
levels of morality and links with criminality
-Offenders are more likely to be classified at the pre conventional stage (stage 1 and 2), whereas non-offenders are usually at the conventional or post-conventional level.
-The pre conventional level is illustrated by a need to avoid punishment, but gain rewards with individuals appearing immature and childlike in
their reasoning. Adults and adolescents who are at this level may commit crime if they can get away with it or if there is financial gain or increased respect.
76
+ kohlberg's theory - research support
-supported by Chandler which suggest offenders are
more self-centred and have poorer social perspective when compared to non-offenders. -They are therefore at the pre conventional stage.
-Individuals who achieve higher levels on the theory (c and post c) are sympathetic, display conventional behaviours such as honesty,generosity and non-violence.
77
+ Kohlberg's theory - additional research support
-Palmer and Hollin compared moral reasoning of 332 non offenders and 126 convicted offenders using the Socio Moral Reflection Measure Short Form (SRM-SF) which contained 11 moral dilemma related
questions.
-The offender group showed less mature moral reasoning tha then non-offender group supporting Kohlberg’s predictions.
78
- Kohlberg's theory - type of offence
-A limitation of this theory is that the level of moral reasoning may
depend on the type of offence.
-Thornton and Reid found that people who commit crimes for financial gain were more likely to show pre-conventional moral reasoning than those who were impulsive with crime.
-Pre conventional crimes occur
when offenders believe they have a good chance of getting away with it.
79
what are cognitive distortions
-Faulty, biased and irrational ways of thinking that mean we perceive ourselves, other people and the world inaccurately and usually negatively.
-We all occasionally show evidence of this, however this has been used to explain how offenders interpret other people’s behaviour and justify their actions.
80
2 examples of cognitive distortions
-Hostile attribution bias
-Minimalisation
81
Hostile Attribution Bias
-Evidence suggests that violent behaviour often occurs as a result of individuals believing other are being confrontational when they are not.
-Offenders are said to misread cues such as being “looked at” which causes them to show the disproportionate, and often violent response.
82
+ research support for hostile attribution bias
-Schonenberg and Jusyte presented 55 violent offenders with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions.
-When compared with the non aggressive matched control group, the violent offenders were significantly more likely to perceive the images as angry and hostile.
-Dodge and Frame showed children a video clip of an ambiguous provocation-children who had been identified as aggressive and rejected prior to the study saw the situation as more hostile than those who classed as non-aggressive.
83
Minimalisation
-A type of deception that involves downplaying the significance of an event or emotion. A common strategy when dealing with feelings of
guilt.
-Offenders use this to reduce the seriousness of their offending. This is
also referred to as “an euphemistic label”
-Burglars or fraudsters saying “I was supporting my family”
84
+ research support for minimisation
Barbaree found that among 26 rapists – 54% denied they had
committed the offence, with 40% minimising the harm they had
caused.
85
+ cognitive distortions - real world support
-application to therapy.
-CBT aims to challenge irrational thinking so this is utilised to encourage offenders to
face up to their crimes and develop a less distorted view of their actions.
-Harkins has indicated that a reduction in minimalization as part of therapy is associated with a reduced risk of reoffending.
86
- cognitive distortions - type of offence
-level of cognitive distortion depends on the type of offence.
-Howitt and Sheldon completed questionnaires with offenders finding that repeat offenders are more likely to use cognitive distortions.
-Moreover, contrary to what was predicted, non- contact sex offenders used more cognitive distortions than contact sex offenders.
87
What is differential association theory?
-An explanation for offending which proposes that through interactions with others individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for offending behaviour.
-Those who commit crime will have negative attitudes
towards it, whilst those who don’t have positive
attitudes.
88
how was differential association proposed
-proposed by Sutherland in the
1920s who believes offending is learned behaviour. This was huge when considering previous theories of the atavistic form and the biological explanation blaming genetic suggested a weakness in characters.
-Sutherland wanted to use scientific principles to explain all types of offences.
-That is ‘the conditions which are said to cause crime should be present when crime is present, and they should be absent when crime is absent’. (Sutherland 1924)
-This theory therefore discriminates between
89
offending is a learned behaviour in differential association theory
-Learning to offend occurs through interactions with significant others.
-These significant others we have previously referred to as ‘role models’.
-This theory therefore suggests we should be able to predict how likely it is that someone will go onto commit an offence due to their interactions.
-To do this, we need to know the frequency, intensity and duration of exposure to deviant and non-deviant norms and values.
90
2 factors causing offending in differential association theory
-learning attitudes
-learnign techniques
91
learning attitudes
-when person is socialised into a group they'll be exposed to values and attitudes towards law
- some values will be pro-crime + some anti-crime
-Sutherland argues if the number of pro-criminal attitudes the person comes to acquire outweighs the number of anti-criminal attitudes, theyll go to offend
92
learning techniques
- addition to being exposed to pro-crime attitudes, would-be offender may also learn techniques for committing offences
-inc' how to break into someone's house through a locked window
93
strength of differential association theory
- A strength Of Differential association theory is that is shifted the focus of explaining offending from the atavistic form or character weakness.
-This explanation suggests the environment is to blame for causing offending rather than the person.
-This is hugely beneficial when considering eugenics (the biological solution) or punishment (the morality solution).
94
counterpoint to strength of differential association theory
-However, differential association theory can result in stereotyping as it assumes those who come from impoverished, crime ridden
backgrounds will almost certainly go onto offend. This is despite
Sutherland stating that offending should be considered on a case by case basis.
-Moreover, the theory relies on the idea that exposure to pro-crime
values is sufficient to produce offending, and ignores that fact that
some people choose not to offend!
95
+ differential association theory - wide reach
-theory can be used to explain offending within all sectors of
society.
-Sutherland recognised that some offences such as burglary
were contained within inner-city working class communities, it is also
the case that some offences occur within white-collar groups.
-These are the ‘middle class’ who share deviant norms and values.
-therefore suggesting it is not just the lower classes who commit offences
supporting this theory to explain all types of crime.
96
- differential association theory - difficulty testing
-difficult to test the predictions. -Despite Sutherland aiming to produce a scientific, mathematical framework to help predict future offending behaviour, many of the concepts cannot be operationalised. -Eg. How can we calculate how many pro crime attitudes a person has or been exposed to.
-Moreover, the theory is based on offending occurring when pro-crime outweighs anti-crime. If we can’t measure these, we do not
know when the desire to offend occurs and the start of offending
occurs.
-This means the theory lacks scientific credibility.
97
what is the psychodynamic explanation of offending
a perspective that describes the dynamics, most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience
98
inadequate superego
-superego formed at the end of phallic stage when children resolve the complexes
-superego works on the morality principle and exerts its influence by punishing the ego through guilt for wrongdoing, whilst rewarding it with pride for good moral behaviour
99
what did Blackburn (1993) argue about the superego
-if superego is somehow deficient or inadequate then offending bhvr is inevitable as the id is given 'free rein' and not properly controlled
100
the 3 types of inadequate superego
-weak superego
-deviant superego
-over-harsh super-ego
101
weak superego
- if same-gender parents are absent during phallic stage then a child cannot internalise s fully-formed superego as there's no opportunity for identification > would make immoral or offending bhvr more likely
102
deviant superego
-if superego child internalises has immoral or deviant values this would lead to offending bhvr
103
over-harsh superego
-a healthy superego is based on identification with a parent who has firm rules but forgives transgressions
-but excessively punitive / overly harsh parenting style leads to a child with over-harsh superego who is crippled by guilt and anxiety
-this may unconsciously drive the individual to perform criminal acts in order to satisfy the superego's overwhelming need for punishment
104
how does psychodynamic approach explain the role of emotion
-effect of inadequate superego is to allow primitive, emotional demands to become uppermost in guiding moral bhvr
-this is key in psychodynamic approach is it marks out as different from the other explanations of crime that we have looked at
-PDA deals with emotional life of individual - eg acknowledges the role anxiety and guilt in development of offending bhvr
-this means lack of guilt is also relevant to understanding offending bhvr eg maternal deprivation is to consider
105
What is the maternal deprivation hypothesis?
Bowlby’s theory which suggests the failure to form a warm, continuous relationship
with a mother-figure in the first few years of life lead to damaging and irreversible
consequences later on in life.
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How can maternal deprivation hypothesis explain offending behaviour?
One of the consequences is affectionless psychopathy. These individuals go onto
engage in delinquent activities and struggle to form close relationships with others
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three characteristics of an affectionless psychopath.
psychopath.
lack of guilt, empathy and feelings for others.
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which study support maternal deprivation hypothesis in offending bhvr
Bowlby’s 44 thieves study which showed 14/44 were AP. 12/14 had prolonged
separation from their mother. In comparison the 2/44 of the control group had
experienced this.
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+ Research support for PDE of offending
-support for link between offending and superego
-Groteta (1991) conducted Freudian-style analysis of 10 offenders referred for psychiatric treatment
-in all those assessed, disturbances in superego formation were diagnosed
-each offender experiences unconscious feelings of guilt and the need for self-punishment
-Groeta explained this is the consequence of over-harsh superego, the need for punishment manifesting itself as a desire to commit acts of wrongdoings and offend
-evidence supports role of psychic conflicts and an over-harsh superego for basis of offending
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- counter point for research support of PDE of offending
-The inadequate superego theory is not supported!
-If the theory was correct, we would
expect harsh, punitive parents to raise children who feel guilt and anxiety.
-The opposite is however true as people who have experienced
harsh discipline tend to be more rebellious and rarely express feelings of guilt!
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- gender bias in PDE of offending
-it is considered to be gender-biased.
-Girls are assumed to develop a weaker superego as there is less
pressure for them to identify with their mothers due to not experiencing castration anxiety. This therefore suggests they are
more likely to offend.
-The opposite is shown however with prison rates as there are 20 times more men than women in jail.
-Boys however identify with the dad as their experience of castration
anxiety and over coming through internalisation suggests they
would have a stronger super ego. This suggests they are less likely to
offend, but as above, we know this is not true.
-Therefore this theory is considered to have alpha bias.
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- PDE of offending - other factors
-Bowlby’s theory is based on an association.
-Lewis analysed data from 500 youths and found maternal deprivation was a poor predictor of future
offending and the ability to form close relationships.
-Other factors such as poverty should be considered rather than focusing on only the one of maternal
deprivation.
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4 ways with dealing with offending behaviour
-Custodial sentencing
-Behaviour Modification in custody
-Anger Management
-Restorative Justice
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Custodial Sentencing
-A decision made by a court that the punishment for a crime should involve time in ‘custody’.
-This could be a prison (incarceration), or a
therapeutic or educational institution such as a
psychiatric hospital.
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why is custodial sentencing used as a punishment - deterrence
Prison is designed to put off the individual from engaging in criminal
behaviour.
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why is custodial sentencing used as a punishment - Incapacitation
Taken out of the public domain to protect the general public. The need for incapacitation is likely to depend on the severity of the offence and the nature of the offender.
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why is custodial sentencing used as a punishment - Retribution
Society is enacting revenge for the crime by making the offender suffer and the level of suffering should be proportionate to the seriousness of the crime
and to pay for their actions.
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why is custodial sentencing used as a punishment - Rehabilitation
-Many see the use of prisons to not solely punish, but to reform.
-Offenders should leave prison feeling better adjusted and ready to take their place back in society.
-Prison should provide opportunities to develop skills.
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Psychological effects of custodial
sentencing
-Stress and depression – high suicide rates, mutilation and self harm. The stress of prison also increases the risk of developing psychological disorders on release.
-Institutionalisation – the individuals take on the norms and routines of prison life – they may be
unable to function ‘in the real world’ when released.
-Prisonisation – ‘inmate code’ – behaviour consider unacceptable in the real word may be encouraged
and rewarded in prison.
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whats recidivism
-Reoffending.
-A tendency to relapse into a previous conviction or mode of behaviour.
-A convicted offender who reoffends, tends to
do so repeatedly.
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- custodial sentencing - psychological effects
-Negative psychological effects on prisoners
-Bartol (1995) suggested that imprisonment can be 'brutal, demanding and generally devastating'
-Ministry of Justice - record of 119 killed themselves in prisons in England and Wales in 2019 = increase of 32% from previous years = almost 9 x higher in general population
-Study by Prison Reform Trust (2014) found 255 women and 15% men in prison reported symptoms of psychosis
-supports view that oppressive prison regimes may be detrimental to psychological health which could impact on rehabilitation
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+ custodial sentencing - counterpoint
-figures in Prison Reform Trust study do not include the number of inmates who were experiencing psychotic symptoms before they were incarcerated
-many of those convicted had pre-existing psychological and emotional difficulties at the ti they were convicted (may explain offending bhvr)
-Importation model argues that prisoners may import some of their psychological problems so we don't know if this problem is a prison regime or something else like trauma of being locked away regardless of what prison is like
-suggests that there may be cofounding variables that influence the link between prison and its psychological effects
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+ custodial sentencing - training and treatment
-provides opportunity for training and treatment
-one objective of imprisonment is rehabilitation = offenders may become better people during their time in prison and their improved character means they may be able to lead a crime-free life when back in society
-many offenders access education and training whilst in prison to increase possibility they will find employment upon release
-Vera Institute of Justice claims that offenders who take part in college education programmes are 43% less likely to reoffend following release and that prisons who offer these programmes report fewer incidents of violence
-suggests prison may be a worthwhile experience assuming offenders are able to access these programmes
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- Custodial sentencing - school for crime
-offenders may learn to become better offenders
-alongside legitimate skills that offenders may acquire during their time in prison, they may also undergo more dubious 'education' as part of sentence
-incarceration with LT offenders may give younger inmates in particular opportunity to learn 'tricks of the trade' from more experienced prisoners
-may also acquire criminal contacts whilst in prison that they may follow up when they are released
-this form of 'education' may undermine attempts to rehabilitate prisoners and may make reoffending more likely
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purpose of behaviour modification
aim to reinforce obedient behaviour in offenders, whilst punishing disobedience, n hope that former continues latter dies out
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token economy as an eq of behaviour modification
-based on operant conditioning
-prisoners given token each time they perform desirable behaviour
-each behaviour and reward would be made clear to prisoners before programme is implemented
-non-compliance / disobedience may result in tokens being withheld or removed(as form of punishment)
-tokens = secondary reinforces as their value derive from their association with a reward
-tokens might be exchanged for phone call to love one, cigarettes or food etc (which are primary reinforcers as they're directly rewarding)
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designing token economy
-operationalised target behaviour > by breaking bhvr down to component parts > must be objective and measurable and agreed with prison staff and inmates in advance
-scoring system > how much each particular bhvr is 'worth'> bhvrs are hierarchical in sense that some are regarded as more demanding then others so receive greater rewards #
-train staff > full train given to staff to implement token economy successfully > training may involve several hours for a no. of weeks > aim is to standardise procedures so that all prison staff are rewarding same bhvrs in the same way > staff must also record when they have rewarded tokens so the progress of individual prisoners can be assessed
