memory Flashcards
what are they three ways of encoding information to be used by our memory system?
acoustic encoding, visual encoding, semantic encoding
acoustic encoding
holding sound information
visual encoding
holding images
semantic encoding
holding the meaning of information
retrieval
the recall of stored memories
output (memory)
for memory, this refers to the memory we recall
encoding
turning sensory information into a form that can be used and stored by the brain
storage
keeping memory in our memory system
processing
the operations we perform on sensory information in the brain
processing
the operations we perform on sensory information in the brain
short term memory
our initial memory store that is temporary and limited
long-term memory
a memory store that holds potentially limitless amounts of information for up to a lifetime
duration
the length of time information can be stored in short-term and long-term memory
capacity
the amount of information that can be stored in short-term and long-term memory
rehearse
when we repeat information over and over again to make it stick
displacement
when the short term memory becomes ‘full’ and new information pushes out older information
interference
when new information overwrites older information, for example when a new phone number takes place of an old phone number in your memory
amnesia
memory loss, often through an accident, disease or injury
anterograde amnesia
a memory condition that means new long-term memories cannot be made; this is typically caused by injury to the brain
retrograde amnesia
a memory condition that affects recall of memories prior to an injury to the brain
active reconstruction
memory is not an exact copy of what we experienced, but an interpretation or reconstruction of events that are influences by our schema when we remember them again
schema (memory)
a packet of knowledge about an event, person or place that influences how we perceive and remember
omission
when we leave out unfamiliar, irrelevant or unpleasant details when remembering something
transformation
when details are changed to make them more familiar and rational
familiarisation
when unfamiliar details are changed to align with our own schema
rationalisation
when we add details into our recall to give a reason for something that may not have originally fitted with a schema
cognitive interview
a police interview designed to ensure a witness to a crime does not actively reconstruct their memory
strengths of Barlett’s theory (2)
it has real-world practical applications and helps us understand why memory can become distorted
ways memory can be actively reconstructed (4)
omission, transformation, familiarisation, rationalisation
ecological validity
the extent to which the findings still explain the behaviour in different situations
subjective
based on personal opinion or feelings
Barlett’s (1932) Theory of Reconstructive memory
suggests memory is not an exact copy of what we experienced
sensory register
our immediate memory of sensory information
attention
focus on certain sensory information
trigram
a set of three letters such as GPX that makes a meaningless string of letters rather than a world
iconic memory
the sensory register of visual information
echoic memory
the sensory register for auditory information
modality free
not linked to a specific type of sensory information
primacy
the tendency to recall words at the beginning of a list when asked to remember it
recency
the tendency to recall words at the end of a list when asked to remember it
strengths of the Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) multi-store memory
there is a lot of evidence to support the theory of separate memory stores
weaknesses of the Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) multi-store memory
- it has been criticised for overstating the role of rehearsal as a means of transferring information into long term storage
- it is unlikely that we only have one type of long-term memory
what does Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) multi-store memory suggest?
proposed that memory consisted of three stores: a sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).
how was ‘The War Of Ghosts’ story changed when it was remembered?
- participants tried to make sense of the story with rationalisation e.g. some patients recalled the original sentence of ‘something black came out of his mouth’ to ‘foaming at the mouth’.
- they tended to leave out unfamiliar or unpleasant parts of the story e.g. ‘canoe’ became ‘boat’ after being familiarised and simplified
serial reproduction
a technique where participants retell something to another participant to form a chain; this is how folk stories are passes down through cultures
repeated reproduction
a technique where participants are asked to recall something again and again
strengths of Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts
- the use of the story as recall material was better than trigrams or lists of digits
- the procedure was replicated with various stories and the same findings have been found across other studies. The findings are reliable
- the results were gathered using qualitative alysis so the real nature of reconstructive memory can be understood through its meaning
disadvantages of Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts
- the use of a story as recall material because it was illogical and
contained strange words and concepts so it isn’t a realistic use of memory - some regard qualitative analysis as unscientific because Barlett could have interpreted the participants’ recalled stories in the light of his own theory and ideas of reconstructive memory
- criticised for for lacking good controls (the participants recalled different time intervals and he allowed each participant to read the story at their own reading pace)
reliable
when the outcomes of a study are consistent
statistical analysis
mathematical calculations performed on data to see whether the findings could be due to chance
standardised procedure
where the procedure of a study is the same across all conditions
Peterson and Peterson (1959) short-term retention of individual verbal items
to test the true duration of short-term memory. Students were less able to accurately recall the trigram the longer they were asked to count backwards. Petersons concluded that short-term memory fades rapidly and only 10% could be recalled after 18 seconds.
strengths of the Peterson and Peterson procedure (1959) short-term retention of individual verbal items
- the researchers used fixed timings for participants to count backwards from
- they eliminated noise and other factors that could have affected memory
- study can be replicated to check if the findings were not a one-off result because they used standardised procedures to make sure all participants experienced the same process
weaknesses of the Peterson and Peterson procedure (1959) short-term retention of individual verbal items
it is not how we would typically use our memory in everyday situations. The procedure lacked mundane realism
extraneous variables
variables that could affects the results of a study
mundane realism
a realistic, everyday task
reductionism
the theory of explaining something according to its basic constituent (being a part of a whole) parts
reductionist
the practice of reductionism
how can Bartlett’s work not be considered reductionist?
- he used qualitative analysis to explore the reconstructive nature of memory by understanding how each individual’s schemas influenced their recall of stories and pictures.
- He spent a considerable amount of time establishing the character backgrounds of his participants in order to understand how their schemas were formed e.g. he found out what jobs they had
