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Intro to Psychology > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

The three processes of memory

A
  1. Encoding
  2. Storage
  3. Retrieval
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2
Q

Encoding

A

get information into our brain

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3
Q

Storage

A

retain that information

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4
Q

Retrieval

A

to later get that information back out

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5
Q

Ebbinghaus’ research on memory- 2 phases

A
  • Phase 1 - practice: rehearsed a list of nonsense syllables (tud, fow, rev).
  • Phase 2 - test:
    • Measured the number of repetitions it took to learn the list again.
    • Examined his rate of forgetting
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6
Q
  • Rehearsal
A
  • The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on Day 1,the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on Day 2.
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7
Q
  • The Forgetting Curve
A
  • The larger the interval between encoding and retrieval, the more we forget.
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8
Q

Three structures/components of memory

A
  • Sensory
  • Short Term
  • Long Term
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9
Q

Sensory memory

A
  • The immediate and brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
    • Iconic memory-a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli. A photographic or picture image Emory that lasts no more than 1/10 of a second
    • Echoic memory-a sensory memory of auditory stimuli. If attention is elsewhere sounds and words can be recalled within three or four seconds
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10
Q

Short-term

A
  • (working memory) activated memory that holds a few items briefly such as the numbers while calling before information is stored or forgotten
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11
Q

Iconic memory

A

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli. A photographic or picture image Emory that lasts no more than 1/10 of a second

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12
Q

Echoic memory

A
  • a sensory memory of auditory stimuli. If attention is elsewhere sounds and words can be recalled within three or four seconds
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13
Q

Working memory

A

a newer understanding of short term memory that adds a conscious and active processing of incoming auditory and visual information and of information received from long term memory

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14
Q

The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

A
  • Linear- one thing after the other;
    • Sensory input
    • If this info is attended to it will move to short term memory
    • If this info is not attended to it will not move to short term memory
    • If its reheresed it can move to long term like ebbunghouse
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15
Q

Rehearsal

A
  • Worst way to retrieve info
  • Meaning is the most important
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16
Q

Digit-span test:

A
  • Memory test in which a series of numbers is read to subjects who are then asked to recall the numbers in order.
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17
Q

Chucking:

A
  • The information is combined into chunks which means meaningful units. By using chunks more information can be held in STM.
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18
Q

Spacing effect

A
  • the tendency for spaced study to get better long term retention then mass study
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19
Q
  • Information loss:
A
  • Decay: Information in the STM eventually disappears if it is not accessed.
  • Displacement: Old information is replaced by new information.
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20
Q

Encoding: Getting Information In

A
  1. Some information (route to your school) is automatically processed.
  2. However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort.
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21
Q
  • We process an enormous amount of information effortlessly, such as the following:
A
  • Space: While reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page.
  • Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day.
  • Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you.
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22
Q

Memory & Meaning

A
  1. Encoding by meaning
  2. Encoding by images
  3. Encoding by organization
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23
Q

Whale slide

A

see page 4

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24
Q

Working Memory

A
  1. Central Executive
  2. Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad
  3. Articulatory Loop
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25
Q

Central Executive

A

In charge of planning future actions, initiating retrieval and decision processes as necessary, and integrating information coming into the system.

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26
Q

Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad-

A
  • One of Two Slave Systems. A system specialized for visual and spatial information. Example: Is the doorknob for your bedroom door on the left or right side?
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27
Q

Articulatory Loop:

A

The Second Slave System. The speech and sound related component responsible for rehearsal of verbal information and phonological processing

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28
Q

what happens in the Working Memory

A
  1. Where the immediately present moment is held in consciousness.
  2. Where active mental effort is expended.
  3. Where comprehension takes place.
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29
Q

Short Term Versus Working Memory

A
  • STM: Older term emphasizing input and storage of new information (e.g., a phone number).
  • Working Memory: Newer term emphasizing processing and storage– the mental workbench.
    • Where we jugle all kinds of information. The CE determines what to do with all of this
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30
Q

Long term memory (LTM)

A
  1. Explicit memory
    1. semantic memory
    2. epesodic memory
  2. Implicit
    1. prodedural memory
31
Q

Consolidation

A

Transition of information from short term memory into long term memory.

32
Q

Explicit / Declarative memory:

A
  • Conscious, intentional recollection of information such as facts or concepts.
    • effortless processing- Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
33
Q

Implicit / Non-declarative memory

A
  • Unconscious retention in memory. Procedural
    • Automatic processing- unconscious encoding of incidental information like space and time or word meaning
34
Q

Semantic memory:

A
  • conceptual and factual knowledge.
35
Q

Episodic memory

A
  • : autobiographical memory, explicitly recalling previous experiences (where and when an event happened). PERSONAL
  • We do explicit through
36
Q

Procedural memory:

A

skill memory, unconscious, non-verbal

37
Q

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A
  • refers to synaptic enhancement after learning (Lynch, 2002). An increase in neurotransmitter release or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates strengthening of synapses.
38
Q

Semantic Memory- how is it organized?

A
  • Meaning imagery and organization now
  • Catergory- like fruit, mamals, toys
  • Schemas- school, fancy resturarnt
  • Semantic networks- association. If I activate one aspect of that network ill light up the whole network
39
Q

Episodic Memory

A
  • Personal
40
Q

Flashbulb Memory

A
  • A unique and highly emotional moment may give rise to a clear, strong, and persistent memory called flashbulb memory. However, this memory is not free from errors.
41
Q

How to improve your memory

A
  1. Organization
  2. Levels of processing
  3. Encoding specificity
42
Q

Hierarchies:

A

Complex information is broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories.

43
Q
  • Levels of processing:
A
  • Maintenance rehearsal: Rote repetition of material to maintain its availability in memory.
  • Elaborative rehearsal: Association of new information with already stored knowledge and analysis of the new information to make it memorable.
44
Q
  • Encoding specificity:
A
  • Context dependent memory: We are more successful at retrieving memories if we are in the same environment in which we stored them.
  • State dependent memory: We are more successful at retrieving memories if we are in the same mood as when we stored them.
45
Q

Levels of Proecessing

A
  • Shallow processing-encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
  • deep processing encoding semantically based on the meaning of words. tends to yield the best retention.
46
Q

Context Effects

A
  • Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land
  • After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants most strongly respond when retested in the same context rather than in a different
47
Q

Déja Vu/Source amnesia

A
  • Déja Vu means “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience.
  • Source amnesia- faulty memory for how when or where information was learned or imagined (along w misinformation effect)
48
Q

Mood Congruence

A
  • We usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood. Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues.
49
Q

Mnemonic devices:

A
  • Strategies to improve memory by organizing information.
    • Method of Loci: Items to be recalled are mentally placed in familiar locations.
    • Andy Bell Memory
    • Peg-Word system: Peg words are associated with ideas (one=bun, two=shoe, three=tree).
    • Word Associations: Verbal associations are created for items to be learned.
50
Q
  • Explicit memory retrieval:
A
  • Recall task: Reproduction of a previously encountered item from memory, without any external cues.
  • Recognition task: Identification of a previously encountered item from a list of present items.
51
Q
  • Implicit memory retrieval:
A
  • Priming: A method in which implicit exposure to information influences semantic networks, cognitions and behaviors.
  • - To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it
52
Q
  • Rec vs recall
A
  • In recognition, the person must identify an item amongst other choices. (A multiple-choice test requires recognition.)
  • In recall, the person must retrieve information using effort. (A fill-in-the blank test requires recall.)
53
Q

Serial position effect:

A
  • The position of an item in a list influences the ability to recall this item.
  • primacy and recency effect
54
Q

Primacy vs recency effect

A
  • Primacy effect: We tend to remember information at the beginning of a list of items better than the items that follow. These items are being processed longer and as a consequence they are more effectively stored in LTM.
  • Recency effect: We tend to remember information at the end of a list of items better than the items before it. The last items are still present in WM when retrieval takes place.
55
Q

Interference theory:

A
  • Forgetting occurs because some memories interfere with other memories.
56
Q

Proactive interference vs Retroactive interference

A
  • Proactive interference: Disruption of prior learning on the ability to remember new information.
  • Retroactive interference: Disruption of new learning on the ability to remember old information.
  • Disruption is stronger when old & new information are similar.
57
Q
  • Reproductive Versus Reconstructive Memory
A
  • Reproductive memory:
    • A highly accurate, verbatim recording of an event.
  • Reconstructive Memory:
    • Remembering by combining elements of experience with existing knowledge.
58
Q

Misinformation Effect:

A

Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.

59
Q

Reconstructive memory experiment

A
  • Loftus & Palmer ( (1974:
    • Participants watched a video of an accident between two cars.
    • Then, they were asked to assess the speed of the cars.
      • Group A: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?
      • Group B: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
    • Smashed group said cars were going faster
    • A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit).
60
Q

The DRM False Memory Task

A
  • Did you “remember” the word “sleep?”
  • The “remember” “know” distinction
61
Q

Implications of FM

A
  • In criminal proceedings eyewitness testimony is considered to be reliable and valid evidence
  • However, research suggests that eyewitness testimony is not always reliable.

The repression-reconstruction debate

  • The Franklin case
  • In the 1990’s an increase in law suits on childhood sexual abuse
  • At the same time an increase in the diagnosis of MPD (now called DID).
62
Q

Repression:

A

: A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

63
Q

Repression or reconstruction

A
  • Memories of abuse: Repressed or constructed?
    • False memory syndrome
      • Condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience.
      • Sometimes encouraged by an over enthusiastic therapist that believes to notice a repressed memory.
    • Esetrogenic effect- problem that’s produced in meoery
  • In all of these studies forgetting was associated with younger age at time of abuse
64
Q

Creating False Memories

A
  • Suggestion
  • Behavioral reenactments
  • Age regression
  • Hypnosis/dream analysis
  • Guided imagination
  • Implanting false stories
65
Q

Recall, recongnition, relearning

A
  1. Recall- retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time.
    • A fill in the blank question tests your recall
  2. Recognition-identifying items previously learned.
    • A multiple choice question tests your recognition
  3. Relearning- learning something more quickly when you learn it at a second time
    • When you study for a final exam or engage in a language used in your childhood you will relearn the material more easily than initially
66
Q

Is Memory Malleable

A

YES

67
Q

memories are NOT recorded… rather

A

they’re constructed & are thus susceptible to various interventions.

68
Q

Schacter’s “Seven Sins of Memory” (2001)

A
  1. Memories are transient (fade with time)
  2. We do not remember what we do not pay attention to
  3. Our memories can be temporarily blocked
  4. We can misattribute the source of memory
  5. We are suggestible in our memories
  6. We can show memory distortion (bias)
  7. We often fail to forget the things we would like not to recall (persistence of memory)
69
Q

Synaptic Plasticity

A
  • synapses strengthen or weaken in response to increases or decreases in their activity.
  • Synaptic plasticity involves several mechanisms, such as changes in the:
  • Quantity of neurotransmitters released into the synapse
  • How effectively the post-synaptic neuron responds to the neurotransmitters
70
Q

LTP Vs LTD

A
  • Long Term Potentiation (LTP) refers to the prolonged strengthening of potential neural firing; Results from repeated activation.
  • The complementary process is called Long Term Depression (LTD) – the process in which the potential neural firing is decreased overtime in synapses that aren’t active.
71
Q

Damage to the hippocampus

A
  • Evidence suggests that the hippocampus is important in the process of consolidation.
  • Damage to the hippocampus impairs recent learning more than older learning: the more consolidated a memory becomes, the less it depends on the hippocampus.
72
Q

How does stress effect our memory?

A
  • Consolidation is also influenced by the passage of time & emotions.
  • Stress hormones arouse activity in the brain, especially in the amygdala.
  • This:
    • Improves memory for emotional events
    • Disrupts memory for neutral events
  • 💡Flashbulb memories💡: the vivid memories of emotional, shocking or traumatizing events.
  • However, prolonged stress has a negative effect on memory formation, including the formation of memories that relate to the stressor.

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73
Q
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Intro to Psychology (6 decks)

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