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GCSE History > Medicine 1800-1900 > Flashcards

Medicine 1800-1900 Flashcards

A Revolution in medicine

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1
Q

Previous ways to dull pain

A

alcohol religious (pray/sing hymns) mandrake, opium, hashish

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2
Q

problems with medieval painkillers

A

opium - difficult to judge an effective does from a lethal one alcohol - made the heart beat faster so bleeding became harder to control religious - did not work

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3
Q

When was nitrous oxide (laughing gas) discovered?

A

discovered in 1795 1800 - Humphry Davey published an account on its effects

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4
Q

what were the effects of Nitrous oxide?

A

made you laugh, feel giddy and relaxed

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5
Q

problems with nitrous oxide

A

it was difficult to find the right dose sometimes patients woke up in the middle of operations

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6
Q

first uses of ether

A

1842 - (william morton) made a public demonstration of ether 1842 - (crawford long) removed a neck growth from a patient 1846 - (robert liston) leg amputation

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7
Q

disadvantages of ether

A

difficult to inhale (administer) caused vomiting highly flammable (no electricity most used torch light)

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8
Q

discovery of chloroform

A

1847

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9
Q

who discovered chloroform

A

James Simpson (when he was testing out mixtures of chemicals and then spilt it causing him and his fiends to fall asleep/unconscious)

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10
Q

problems with chloroform

A
  • it was hard to gain an exact does and it could be dangerous/lethal - the healthier the more likely you were to die because you inhaled more in - Hannah Greener died from an overdose in 1848 during an operation to remove her toenail
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11
Q

how anaesthetics made a contribution

A
  • surgeons could do longer operation - 1850 - Queen Victoria successfully gave birth using chloroform which changed attitudes towards painkillers
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12
Q

how anaesthetics did not make a contribution

A
  • army surgeons in the Crimean War (1853-56) thought that soldiers should put up with the pain - anaesthetics did not battle infections so death rates were still high - religious oppositions was that childbirth pain was a punishment from God - patients died from incorrect dosage
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13
Q

why did surgeons stop using chloroform/painkillers

A
  • having no pain allowed for longer operations = more exposure to unclean environment = patients often got infections that would later kill them - death rates rose - surgeons stopped using painkillers in 1870s
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14
Q

Coca leaves

A

1850 - coca leaves from South America were used to produce cocaine as a local anaesthetic

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15
Q

why did cocaine become popular?

A
  • only affected small regions of the body - safer doses and easier operation - 1891 - it could be chemically produced
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16
Q

louis pasteur background

A
  • son of a sergeant major in the Napoleonic war - strong passion for his country, France - 1843 - became a research chemist
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17
Q

germ theory date

A

1859

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18
Q

germ theory explanaintion

A

disproved spontaneous generation but rather that infection/breakdown was due to microbes in the air (that could cause disease)

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19
Q

germ theory proof/experiment

A
  • an open top flask and a specially designed swan neck flask, both had beetroot juice - left out for a few days - open flask gained an odor whereas the swan neck flask remained perfectly fresh
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20
Q

why did the swan neck flask work

A

the curve in the neck allowed for air to reach the juice but didn’t allow any dust particles through thus stopping bacterial growth

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21
Q

what did pasteur do in 1848?

A
  • proved identical molecules can exist as mirror images but noticed living things created left-handed molecules - step forward in microbiology - underpins modern drug development
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22
Q

what did Napoleon III ask louis pasteur?

A

1863 - why wines would go off and how to prevent it - French economy was suffering due to the wine spoiling before reaching client countries

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23
Q

development of pasteurisation

A

spoiled wine contained microbes so pasteur tired killing microbes with heat - high temperature = bad taste -low temperature = not all the microbes killed

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24
Q

pasteurisation (finished process)

A

pastuer found that 55°C was high enough to kill microbes but low enough to not spoil the taste

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25
Q

pasteur on silk worms

A

1865 - asked to investigate disease affecting silkworms (that was causing problems in the economy) - he worked out that the infection was transmitted by parasites and showed how infected worms could be isolated and destroyed

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26
Q

how did pasteur immunise chickens against cholera?

A
  • accidentally left a culture of chicken cholera out - injected some healthy chickens with it - the chickens survived - injected with fresh cholera culture - survived, they were immune
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27
Q

what did the chicken cholera vaccine show?

A

that you could create vaccine in a laboratory by weakening the disease through exposure to air, thus creating a weaker strain

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28
Q

when did pasteur discover the vaccine for anthrax?

A

1881

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29
Q

pasteur and rabies

A

1885 - he found the vaccine against rabies by applying the same logic he used for the chicken cholera tests were successful on animals so he later tested on Joseph Meister who was bitten by a rabid dog, it worked.

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30
Q

opinions on pasteur’s findings (French press)

A

“i am afraid that the experiments you quote, M.Pateur, will turn against you. The world into which you wish to take us is really too fantastic” - La Presse

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31
Q

pasteur’s main problems

A

Pasteur was convinced that microbes caused disease in humans, but he was never able to directly link one microbe with a disease. People could have doubts because of this.

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32
Q

robert koch - background

A
  • poor mining family - studied medicine, mathematics and natural science - a doctor with a detailed understanding of the human body (unlike Pasteur) - difficult to work with
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33
Q

what happened in 1868 (koch)?

A

French doctor showed animals injected with anthrax infected blood caught the disease - koch continued this work - koch found the anthrax microbe produced spores that lived after the animals death - proved spores could develop into the germs and infect

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34
Q

koch and septicaemia

A

1878 - he identified the germ that caused blood poisoning and septicaemia

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35
Q

what did koch develop

A

new techniques to carry out experiments that influenced many other scientists

36
Q

koch and dyes

A

discovered methyl violet dye showed up the septicaemia germ under a microscope by staining it he also photographed germs so that people out side his laboratory could see them

37
Q

koch and TB

A

1881 - announced he had found the germ causing TB

38
Q

what were microbe hunters?

A

the new generation of scientists inspired by koch and pasteur (including Paul Ehrlich)

39
Q

Pasteur overview

A

1848 - mirror image molecules 1859 - germ theory (swan neck experiment) 1863 - pasteurisation 1865 - silkworm isolation/disease 1879 - chicken cholera vaccine 1881 - anthrax vaccine 1885 - rabies vaccine

40
Q

koch overview

A

1868 - worked on anthrax, showed infection spread 1878 - identified septicaemia germ - new scientific experiment technique - methyl violet dye discovered - photographed germs/microbes 1882 - found TB germ

41
Q

Paul Ehrlich - background

A
  • introduced into cellular staining by family - continued work on cellular staining He reasoned that chemical agents could be used to heal diseased cells or to destroy infectious agents
42
Q

Paul Ehrlich discoveries

A
  • a new way to stain the tuberculosis bacterium - differentiated between different types of blood cells of the body - discovered uses of methylene blue in nervous conditions and for dyes
43
Q

Paul Ehrlich and syphilis

A

1909- Salvarsan 606 helped treat syphilis and became known as the magic bullet.

44
Q

magic bullet

A

Salvarsan 606 only targeted the infected cells

45
Q

what happened during the cattle plague?

A

1866 - many still believed in spontaneous generation - farmers were reluctant to kill infected cows - disease spread very quickly

46
Q

solution to the cattle plague

A
  • government appointed Lionel Beale to investigate - only quarantining seemed to work but lead to food shortages - found that a specific microbe was responsible
47
Q

effects of the cattle plague

A

-showed that the microscope could be useful to everyday life - the germ theory was correct

48
Q

charles bastion

A
  • professor of anatomy - high level individual - 1860s wrote articles that argued for spontaneous generation theory
49
Q

john tyndall

A
  • highlighted bastion’s errors - lectured on dust and disease and about koch - demonstrated the existence of tiny microbes in the air
50
Q

contagionists - causes of disease

A

infection was spread by contact with infected individual or bacteria

51
Q

contagionists - solutions

A
  • epidemics controlled by quarantine or preventing contact - they could not explain why some people did not always get the disease despite contact
52
Q

anti-contagionsist - cause of disease

A
  • diseases like cholera, plague and typhoid were caused when infections interacted with the environment - linked with the miasma theory
53
Q

anti-contagionsists - solutions

A
  • epidemics controlled by cleaning up the environment - couldnnt explain why it worked
54
Q

typhoid fever - effects

A
  • changed many ideas on spontaneous generation - germ theory became widely accepted - government attitude started to change
55
Q

Cheyne and Robert koch

A

1879 - translated koch’s work and wrote about his findings - having many others support and spread koch and pasteur’s theories persuaded many

56
Q

william dallinger and john drysdale

A

1874 - microscope research into life cycle of germs

57
Q

Franco-prussian war

A

1870-71 - created a large rivalry between koch and pasteur which pushed them to discovery

58
Q

ignas semmelweiss

A

in 1847 used antiseptics to lower death rate from 35% to 1% but few followed suit

59
Q

Joseph lister - carbolyic acid

A

recommended the use of carbolic acid for surgery as an antiseptic: room sterilised, surgical equipment sterilised and the wound also wrapped in carbolic acid soaked dressings

60
Q

Joseph lister - numbers

A

rate or infection dropped from 50% to 15% in 4 years

61
Q

joseph lister’s invention

A

1871 - machine that sprayed carbolic acid around the room and patient during surgery

62
Q

joseph lister’s invention negatives

A
  • carbolic acid dried skin and irritated lungs - took a long time to prepare
63
Q

joseph lister downfalls

A
  • still operated in usual clothes - still believed microbes were simple only one type
64
Q

reasons for opposition to joseph lister

A
  • jelousy - opposed to change - inaccuracies could cause increased mortality rates - british military surgeon said it was good to hear the shout and brawl of patients, not die quietly
65
Q

charles chamberland

A

1881 - steam sterilizer for medical instruments

66
Q

gustav neuber

A
  • insisted on throughly scrubbing staff before entering - first sterile operating theatre - air was sterilized - published results in 1886
67
Q

berkeley moynihan

A
  • first british surgeon to use rubber gloves but he was ridiculed - facemasks. gloves, surgical gowns, smaller operating theatres reduced infections
68
Q

joseph lister’s success

A

1865 - mended a fractured boy’s leg and wrapped it in dressing soaked in carbolic acid, it did not get infected and he recovered (usually gets infected and leads to amputations)

69
Q

florence nightingale

A
  • during the Crimean War (1853-56) she took notice of the dirtiness and deterioration of the military hospitals so improved cleanliness and sanitation - she helped bring down the death rate from 40-2% - Nightingale fundamentally changed the role of nursing in hospitals - key figure in introducing new professional training standards -she published “notes on hospitals” in 1863 setting out her principals for running clean, safe and well-ventilated hospitals
70
Q

Elizabeth garret anderson

A

1872 - set up the New Hospital for Children and Women 1874 - set up the London School of Medicine for Women

71
Q

how much did population increase?

A

1801 - 16.3 million 1901 - 41.6 million

72
Q

main diseases for the general public

A

typhoid (contaminated food and water) tuberculosis (passed by sneezing and coughing) cholera (contaminated water)

73
Q

main disease/injury for workers

A

coal miners - pneumoconosis (lung disease) factories making match heads - “phossy-jaw” (jaaw would be eaten away and could also include brain damage) this was due to the inhaled phosphorus fumes machines in factories didn’t have guards so often limbs got stuck and many people died or needed amputations

74
Q

when were the cholera epidemics?

A

1831-32, 1848, 1854, 1866

75
Q

what did people think caused cholera?

A

the great stink of the Thames, which was full of sewage

76
Q

when did parliament leave London due to the Great Stink?

A

1858

77
Q

when did John Snow publish?

A

1849 (after the 1848 epidemic) On the mode of communication of cholera

78
Q

john snow’s discovery

A

-he mapped the location of each death and worked out that they all collected their water from the local water pump -he removed handle of pump -later discovered that a cesspit 1 metre from the water pump was leaking dirty water into the drinking supply

79
Q

what was Laissez-faire

A

“do nothing” the attitude many people shared that the government should not be involved in public matters or health

80
Q

edwin chadwick

A

sectretary to the poor law commissioners from 1834

  • used statistical methods of investigation to explore the link between ill-health and poverty
  • he wrote the influential 1842 “Report on the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population” (established links between poor living conditions, disease and life expecatancy)
  • the report urged to improve living conditions
  • healthier workers = better work = better for the rich
81
Q

joseph balzagette

A

in 1858 was given £3 million to start planning an underground sewage system for london

(finished in 1866, cholera never returned)

82
Q

what was the Sanitary Act?

A

1866 - made councils responsible for sewers, water and street cleaning.

each town had a health inspector

83
Q

when did the working class men get the right to vote?

A

1867 - this lead to political parties making promises about improving living and working conditions to get elected

84
Q

what was the second public health act?

A

1875 - forced local communites to appoint medical officers to be responsibel for public health

councils were ordered to:

  • cover up sewers and keep them in good condition
  • supply fresh water
  • collect rubbish
85
Q

what was the artisians dwelling act?

A

1875 - made house owners responsible for keeping their properties in good order

  • it also gave local councils the power to buy and demolish slum housing if it did not improve

GCSE History (18 decks)

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