MCAT Q&A -Summer 2011 Flashcards
1
Q
what’s the opposite of a vector quantity?
A
Scalar
2
Q
energy is a [scalar/vector/neither] quantity.
A
Scalar
3
Q
displacement is a [scalar/vector/neither] quantity
A
vector
4
Q
time is a a [scalar/vector/neither] quantity
A
scalar
5
Q
cos2θ + sin2θ = ???
A
1
6
Q
what is mass percent? Define it.
(BR chem. 17)
A
mass of solute / mass of solution
7
Q
what does ‘solvate’ (verb) mean?
A
Solvate (noun) is an aggregate that consists of a solute ion or molecule with one or more solvent molecules;
also : a substance (as a hydrate) containing such ions (m-w.com)
8
Q
What is a lipid?
A
Any biological molecule that has low solubility in water (hydrophobic), and high solubility in nonpolar organic solvents.
9
Q
what does amphipathic mean?
A
Polar at one end (hydrophilic),
nonpolar at the other end (lipophilic)
10
Q
What are the six major groups of lipids?
A
Fatty acids;
glycolipids;
phospholipids;
steroids;
terpenes
triglycerides (EK Bio 2)
11
Q
Fatty acids; triglycerides; phospholipids; glycolipids; steroids; terpenes (EK Bio 2)
what must be noted about the above list of 6 lipids?
A
triglycerides; phospholipids; glycolipids
are sometimes simply referred to as ‘fatty acids’ b/c fatty acids are a component of all of them
(EK Bio 2)
12
Q
the main constituent of veggie oil and animal fat is ____
A
triglyceride
13
Q
what are fatty acids?
i.e., describe their chemical components
A
they’re long chains of carbons truncated at one end by carboxylic acid
(EK BIO 2)
14
Q
In humans, what is the max # of carbons for a fatty acid chain?
A
24
15
Q
Are all fatty acids saturated?
A
No. fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated
16
Q
[saturated/unsaturated] fatty acids contain all single bonds
A
saturated
17
Q
triglycerides are also called ____
A
triacylglycerols
18
Q
what are the components that make up a triglyceride?
A
3 fatty acids bonded to a glycerol; according to Audio Osmosis it’s “3 carbon chains dangling from a 3-carbon backbone”
19
Q
what is glycerol?
A
propan-1,2,3-triol
3 hydroxyl groups attached to 3 carbons
A 3-carbon backbone of triglycerides
20
Q
What is the purpose of triglycerides?
A
To store energy, & provide thermal insulation and padding
21
Q
special cells, AKA fat cells, whose cytoplasm contains almost nothing but triglycerides, are called _____
A
adipocytes
22
Q
What are phospholipids?
A
A glycerol backbone with 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group attached
23
Q
in what part of the cell do we phospholipids?
A
Cell membranes
24
Q
where are glycolipids found abundantly?
A
In the membranes of myelinated cells of nervous system
25
what are steroids?
4-ringed structures
26
what is the major purpose**/**function of steroids?
To regulate metabolic activities
27
what are eicosanoids?
20-carbon-length fatty acids
28
what is the purpose/function of eicosanoids?
Local hormones
29
give examples of steroids.
Some hormones,
vitamin D,
cholesterol
30
what are terpenes?
Class of lipids
31
example of terpenes includes \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
vitamin A
32
In bio, what does the word “essential” mean?
Means cannot be produced by the body, so it must be ingested
33
how many, if any, of the 20 most common amino acids are ‘essential’?
between 8 to 11
34
What’s the ‘primary structure’ of a polypeptide?
The sequence and number of amino acids that form the polypeptide chain
35
what’s the ‘secondary structure’ of a polypeptide?
alpha-helix, or beta-pleated sheet
36
why does the helix, or the pleated sheet, form?
Forms from H-bonding
37
What does the suffux –PHAGE refer to?
Cells that "eat" (e.g., Macro*phage*s)
The suffix can also refer to **viruses**.
38
What atoms/molecules specifically H-bonds in the secondary structures?
H-bonding between the **carboxyl** oxygen of one amino acid, and the hydrogen on the **amino** group (--NH2) of the other amino acid
39
True/False – 2nd-ary structures are created by interactions between the side chains of adjacent amino acids
False.
## Footnote
Created by interaction between atoms of the peptides’ *backbone*
40
What’s the tertiary structure?
Overall 3-dimensional structure of a single polypeptide chain
41
how is the tertiary structure created?
By variety of interactions ***among* R-groups**, or
between the **R-groups** and the peptide **backbone**
42
What types of chemical bonds make **tertiary** structures possible?
Disulfide bonds,
H-bonds,
ionic interactions between acidic and hydrophobic side chains;
van der Waals
43
What’s the **quaternary** structure of proteins?
Two or more polypeptide chains binding together
44
two broad types/categories of **proteins** are ____ and \_\_\_\_
globular and structural
45
What’s the difference between globular and structural proteins?
Structural proteins made from long polymers; they add strength to cellular and matrix structures
46
When you see nitrogen on the MCAT, think [nucleic acids/ some lipids / some carbs / proteins]
all of the above have nitrogen, but for the MCAT think PROTEIN
(EK Bio 6)
47
glucose is a #-carbon sugar
6
48
if glucose needs to be stored, it is converted by the body to \_\_\_\_\_
glycogen, or into fat
49
what is glycogen. Describe it.
Branched glucose polymer
50
Does glycogen have alpha or beta linkages?
alpha linkages
51
glycogen is stored mainly in \_\_\_\_\_\_?
stored in mainly the **liver** and **muscles** as glycogen. (wiki article on glucose)
52
The polysaccharides formed from glucose by plants are \_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
## Footnote
starch and cellulose
53
Given:
glycogen, cellulose, and starch.
Which of these have alpha linkages, which beta?
Glycogen and starch have **alpha**
54
the basic monomer of a DNA strand is \_\_\_\_
a nucleotide
55
Name the 3 components of nucleotides.
a 5-carbon sugar,
nitrogenous base,
phosphate group
56
what specific bond joins together individual nucleotides?
The phosphodiester bond
57
what bonding joins together the two **strands** of a DNA molecule?
The ‘rungs’ of the DNA spiral ‘ladder’ are held together by hydrogen bonding
(EK bio 8)
58
name the nucleotides that make up DNA
adenine,
thymine,
cytosine, and
guanine
59
how is RNA different from the above list of nucleotides?
RNA lacks thymine; instead has uracil
60
List other very important nucleotides, besides A T C G and U.
ATP;
GMP
cyclic AMP;
NADH; &
FADH2
61
What are ‘minerals’ when talking about them in biology?
The dissolved inorganic ions inside and outside the cell
62
[true/false] :
Enzymes alter the equilibrium of a rxn
false.
Enzymes are catalysts. Like any catalyst, enzymes don’t alter eq of a rxn
63
The reactant or reactants upon which the enzyme works, is called a \_\_\_\_\_
substrate
64
the part of the enzyme to which the substrate binds, is called \_\_\_\_\_
the active site
| (EK bio 11)
65
Besides the lock-and-key model, there’s also the _______ theory/model
induced fit
66
explain ‘saturation kinetics’
as the **concentration** of substrate increases, the **rate** of rxn also increases, but
it’s *diminishing* returns until a Vmax is reached (**horizontal** asymptote)
67
What are coenzymes?
Organic molecule that serves as a type of cofactor
68
what are co*factors*?
A **non**-protein component that many enzymes *require* to reach optimal activity
69
are vitamins related to coenzymes? If so, how?
Many vitamins or vitamin-derivatives are coenzymes
70
list the mechanisms by which enzyme activity can be blocked.
**Competitive** inhibition;
**non**competitive inhibition; and
**irreversible** inhibition
71
Competitive inhibition;
noncompetitive inhibition; and
irreversible inhibition
Which of the above 3 mechanisms is highly toxic?
irreversible
72
How do irreversible inhibitors work?
They bind **covalently** to enzymes (a *few* bond noncovalently)
73
describe non-competitive inhibition
the inhibitor bonds to an enzyme at a spot *OTHER than* the active site, and changes the conformation of the enzyme
74
The inactive form of an enzyme is called a/n?
zymogen, or
proenzyme
75
The shutdown mechanism for enzyme activity is called \_\_\_\_
negative feedback
76
Metabolism consists of \_\_\_\_bolism and \_\_\_bolism
catabolism,
anabolism
77
which –bolism means “building up”?
anabolism is molecular synthesis
78
The first stage of aerobic respiration is \_\_\_
glycolysis
79
The first stage of anaerobic respiration is\_\_\_\_
glycolysis
80
briefly summarize/explain/define glycolysis
the series of rxns that break glucose molecule into two 3-carbon molecules of pyruvate
81
is pyruvate related to pyruvic acid?
yes
82
how is pyruvate related to pyruvic acid?
Pyruvate is the conjugate base of pyruvic acid
83
glycolysis produces a net of ____ ATP molecules
2
84
true/false:
glycolysis will not occur w/o oxygen
false.
It can occur with and w/o oxygen
85
**an**aerobic respiration is also called?
## Footnote
fermentation
86
in fermentation, pyruvate is turned into _____ in human muscle cells
## Footnote
lactic acid
87
yeast turns pyruvate into ____ during fermentation
ethanol
88
after glycolysis, what happens next with Aerobic respiration?
Pyruvate and NADH move into mitochondrion, where the pyruvate is converted into acetyl CoA
89
What’s the next step after pyruvate is converted to Acetyl CoA?
## Footnote
Krebs cycle
90
Krebs cycle is aka?
Citric acid cycle
and
Tricarboxylic acid cycle (**TCA**)
91
1 glucose molecule produces ___ turns of the Krebs cycle
2
92
Each turn of the Krebs cycle produces ___ ATP, ____ NADH, & ___ FADH2.
1 ATP,
3 NADH, &
1 FADH2
93
AERObic respiration, including glycolysis, produces a net ____ ATP molecules
36
94
1. **What** is the electron transport chain?
2. **Where** is it located?
Series of **proteins** called cytochromes in the **inner membrane** of the mitochondrion
95
In MCAT’s Newtonian physics, the two types of friction are:
**static** friction and **kinetic** friction
96
which of the two types of Newtonian friction is usually larger?
Static
97
What’s the temp of the human body, in Celsius?
37
98
What’s the **molar mass** of water?
18 grams per mole
99
What are the 4 broad **groups** for the 20 amino acids?
Nonpolar; polar; acidic, and basic
100
How do you remember the** basic** amino acids? [mnemonic device]
The basic acids with basic R groups are **H-A-L**
101
How do you remember the **acidic** amino acids?
They’re **aspartic** acid; and **glutamic** acid.
Just memorize them.
102
what chemical is the **intermediate** between pyruvate and the Krebs cycle?
Acetyl CoA
103
What does the electron transport chain really do? What is its purpose/function?
Pass down electrons from 1 protein to next. They pump protons into the **inter**-membrane space so that the inter-membrane space will have **low pH**.
104
What’s ATP synthase?
Integral protein of the **inner** membrane of Mitochondria
105
What does ATP synthase do?
allows protons to flow thru the membrane back into mitochondrial matrix;
The overall reaction sequence is:
ATP synthase + ADP + Pi **→** ATP Synthase + ATP
106
How does the body break down fat for energy?
[answer has several steps]
Triglycerides broken into **glycerol** and **fatty acids**;
glycerol enters glycolysis.
Fatty acids taken to mitochondrial matrix and turned into Acetyl CoA
107
How does the body break down **proteins** for energy? Specifically, where in the energy cycle do the proteins enter?
amino acids enter the production processes at different points, depending on the type of amino acid involved
108
where in the body is pyruvate converted to Acetyl CoA?
**Inside** the mitochondrial matrix
109
In aerobic organisms, when/why would **fermentation** occur?
If O2 were not present
110
Describe the fermentation process.
**NADH oxidized back to NAD+**;
## Footnote
(this process produces CO2 and ethanol (in yeast), or lactic acid in other organisms.)
111
What are the **net** products of glycolysis?
the net products of glycolysis:
2 atp; 2 nadh; 2 pyruvates
112
What’s **substrate level** phosphorylation?
Refers to the process of ATP production in the **Krebs cycle**
113
What’s **oxidative** phosphorylation?
The production of ATP using **ATP synthase**
114
What is helicase?
A motor protein
115
What does helicase do?
They move directionally along a nucleic acid phosphodiester backbone, **separating two** annealed nucleic acid strands by **breaking the H-bonds** between annealed nucleotide bases
116
What powers helicase?
the energy from ATP hydrolysis
117
True/False:
Helicase is just one protein that’s the same, no matter which organism it’s found in.
False.
## Footnote
There are **many** helicases (14 confirmed in E. coli, 24 in human cells) resulting from the great variety of processes in which strand separation must be catalyzed
118
How does helicase "move"?
move incrementally along one nucleic acid strand of the duplex with a directionality and processivity **specific** to each particular enzyme.
119
What’s the **replication fork**?
Structure that forms during DNA replication when the double helix unwinds and is **partially unzipped**
120
What is the function of DNA **polymerase**?
**Adds** nucleotides to a new strand of DNA
121
Can DNA polymerases **start** a **new** strand of DNA?
No.
They can only add new nucleotides to an **existing** strand of DNA.
122
DNA Polymerases can only add new nucleotides to an *existing* strand of DNA.
So then, what can start a **new** DNA strand?
a primer
123
What is a primer?
What is it made of, and
what is its function?
A primer is a **strand of** nucleic acid (***most*** of the time it’s RNA) that serves as a **starting point for DNA synthesis**.
They are **required for DNA replication because** the enzymes that catalyze this process, DNA polymerases, can only add new nucleotides to an existing strand of DNA.
124
Where on the DNA strand does the polymerase start its replication?
The polymerase starts replication at the **3'-end** of the primer, and **copies the opposite** strand.
125
what’s meant by the “fluid mosaic model”?
means that the **phospholipids** that make up the **bilayer** of a membrane can float around, but can't separate from the bilayer
126
in eukaryotic molecules, ________ regulates membrane fluidity
cholesterol
127
What’s a lagging strand?
The lagging strand is that strand of the DNA double helix that is orientated in a **5' to 3'** manner
128
All **DNA** synthesis occurs [5’-3’ / 3’-5’].
5'-3'
129
To produce a complementary strand, the *original* DNA strand must be read **[5’-3’ / 3’-5’]** to produce a new 5'-3' strand.
The original DNA strand must be read 3'-5' to produce a 5'-3' nascent strand.
130
T/F:
## Footnote
Both strands, **leading** and **lagging**, are replicated in long, continuous strands.
false
131
"Both strands, leading and lagging, are replicated in long, continuous strands."
Correct the above statement.
**One** strand is made *continuously*; the **other** strand is made in *discontinuous* fragments
132
What is the leading strand?
the strand of DNA that is being replicated **continuously**. It is the strand that is being continuously polymerized ***towards the*** replication fork.
133
What direction does the lagging strand grow in?
opposite to the unzipping of the replication fork
134
The lagging strand is made in fragments.
What are these fragments called?
Okazaki fragments
135
Why is the lagging strand made in fragments?
Because the strand is growing away from the replication fork, it needs to be replicated in fragments because the Primase (that adds the RNA primer) has to wait until the fork opens further to be able to put the primer.
136
What are bacteriophages?
virus that **infects bacteria**
137
What is capsid?
protein coat containing nucleic acids of virus
138
Which viruses often have an eicosehedral capsid?
Bacteriophages and
*most* animal viruses
139
most viruses that infect eukaryotes are engulfed by an _____ process
endocytotic
140
What are the 2 possible *life cycles of the virus*?
**lytic** cycle and **lysogenic** cycle.
141
How are viruses different from living things?
VIRUS not living cuz:
- -do not contain **both** DNA and RNA
- -have either DNA **OR** RNA
- -don’t make their **own ATP**, instead use the host cell’s ATP
142
Why is there a **species barrier** against many viral infections?
virus needs **specific glycoprotein on** host's **cell membrane**, in order to enter Host cell.
**Different species** have different cell membranes with **different glycoproteins**. This is why there’s the species barrier against viral infections.
143
What’s a *Virulent* virus?
virus that follows the **lytic** life cycle
144
What’s the *other* category of virus, other than virulent viruses?
Temperate viruses
145
What is a temperate virus?
virus in a **lysogenic** life cycle
146
What does a virus do after attaching to a cell membrane?
After attaching to cell membrane, virus *either*
injects nukes **directly into cell**, or
for **animal** viruses, is taken into cell through **endocytosis**
147
Describe briefly the **lytic** cycle.
*Summarize* the lytic life cycle.
Lytic cycle – the viral nucleic acids and enzymes **immediately *take over*** the reproductive functions of the cell, start making virions. Cell swells with virions and **bursts**, releasing virions into external environment.
148
Summarize the **lysogenic** cycle.
**Lysogenic** cycle – the virus’ nukes are **incorporated** into host cell genome. Host cell makes copies of the viral nukes as it naturally reproduces.
149
What’s a provirus?
Provirus – name of **viral DNA** that is *embedded* in host DNA
150
Can a virus have **single stranded** DNA?
Can a virus have **double-stranded** RNA?
Virus classified by type of nuke it produces.
It can have either **single**, or double-stranded **DNA**. Or
it can have either single- or **double**-stranded **RNA**.
151
What is meant by ‘Plus-strand RNA’ or '**positive-sense**' RNA'?
some viruses have plus-strand RNA, meaning the RNA can be **directly translated into *_protein_***
152
What is meant by **MINUS-strand** (**negative sense**)** ****_R_**NA?
**has to be** tran*s****_cribed_*** into **positive-sense **_R_**NA** (by an **RNA polymerase**) before it can be trans**_lated_**.
153
What is Reverse transcriptase?
enzyme carried by **Retroviruses** to create DNA from its RNA, by **reverse-transcribing RNA into DNA** for incorporation into host-cell’s genome
154
What is the most famous retrovirus?
HIV
155
what happens to the DNA created by a retrovirus?
DNA is **incorporated into** genome of host cell
156
measles, rabies, flu, are all **[plus/minus]**-strand RNA viruses
MINUS
157
what is **Positive-sense** (*plus*-strand **RNA**) analogous to?
viral mRNA
158
What are Viroids?
infectious pieces of **naked RNA** in ring form; infect only **plants**
159
What are Prions?
**naked protein**s that cause infections in *animals*; CAN REPRODUCE themselves ***w/o*** DNA or RNA
160
What is **Monera**?
a now-***obsolete*** taxonomic group in biological classification originally understood as *one of five biological Kingdoms.*
The kingdom Monera included most organisms with a **pro**karyotic cell organization (that is, **no nucleus**). For this reason, the kingdom was sometimes called **Prokaryota** or Prokaryotae.
Under the three-domain system of taxonomy established in 1990, the organisms formerly within Monera have been divided into two Domains, **Archaea** and **Bacteria** (with Eukaryote as the third domain).
161
What makes Prokaryotes distinct from eukaryotes?
**no** membrane-bound **nucleus**
162
What are the 2 **domains** that now make up the old-fashioned grouping called Prokaryotes?
**bacteria** and
**archaea**
163
What is the difference between archaea and prokaryotes?
archaea cell walls **not** made of peptidoglycan
164
the 2 domains that now make up the old-fashioned grouping called Prokaryotes, are **bacteria** and **archaea**.
## Footnote
**What is the *difference* between archaea and bacteria?**
archaea cell walls **not** made of peptidoglycan
165
What are Virions?
*metabolically inactive* form of the virus
166
What are the names of the *major* **shapes** of bacteria?
The major shapes of bacteria are **coccus** Cocci (round) or **bacillus** bacilli (rod shape)
167
Besides cocci and bacilli, what are other **bacterial shapes**?
Other bacteria shapes are
* **spirilla** (twists like a spiral),
* **vibrio** (a curved rod shape or "comma" shape), and
* **spirochetes**
168
what are the main components of a phospholipid?
A phosphate group,
2 fatty acid chains, and a
glycerol backbone
169
T/F: Phospholipids are amphipathic
true
170
which part of the phospholipids is polar, and which nonpolar?
Phosphate group = polar;
fatty acid chain = nonpolar
171
proteins that punch through both bilayers are called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
**Integral** proteins, or **intrinsic** proteins
172
proteins that pierce only one layer of the phospholipids bilayer are called \_\_\_\_\_
**Peripheral** or **extrinsic** proteins
173
the carbohydrate portion of a glycoprotein always protrudes towards the **[inside/outside]** of the cell.
outside
174
*each* layer of the **bi**layer is called a \_\_\_\_\_
leaflet
175
what’s passive diffusion?
something moves across the membrane in the direction of its electrochemical gradient
**w/o** use of a specific protein channel,
**w/o** expenditure of additional energy
176
The more charge a molecule has, the **[harder/easier]** it is to passively diffuse across membrane
harder
177
Can facilitative diffusion be in any particular direction?
_Facilitative_ diffusion – must be **in direction of electrochemical gradient** of the molecule being transported
178
\_\_\_\_\_\_ transport = against electrochemical gradient
active transport goes ***against*** the electrochemical gradient
179
Is the **Sodium-potassium pump** an example of active or facilitative transport?
active
180
What does the sodium-potassium pump do?
3 Na out of cell,
2 K into cell
(1 ATP expended)
181
What is Peptidoglycan / murein?
Peptidoglycan, also known as murein, is a *polymer consisting of sugars and amino acids* that forms a mesh-like layer outside the plasma membrane of **bacteria** (but ***not*** Archaea), forming the cell **wall**.
182
When saying ‘gram **positive**’, what part of the bacteria gets stained?
Staining the **peptidoglycan** cell **walls**
183
what color is a Gram positive stain?
dark purple
184
What color is a gram negative stain?
pink
185
What are Fimbria?
[microbiology]
short tentacles possessed by many gram-**negative** bacteria.
**Not** involved in motility.
186
Flagella is made from a protein called \_\_\_\_\_
flagellin
187
in bacteria, flagella are powered by \_\_\_\_\_\_
proton pump
188
What’s Chemotaxis?
Chemotaxis is the phenomenon in which somatic cells, bacteria, and other single-cell or multicellular organisms direct their *movements according to certain chemicals in their environment.*
189
what’s a plasmid?
Small **circles of DNA** that exist and ***replicate independently*** of the bacterial chromosome
190
what is the method employed by Bacteria to reproduce?
Bacteria reproduce by Binary fission
191
what are the methods by which bacteria recombine their genes?
Recombine their genes through conjugation, transformation, transduction
192
conjugation, transformation, transduction
in which of the above 3 methods is f-plasmid involved?
conjugation
193
What is bacterial conjugation?
Bacterial conjugation is the **transfer** of genetic material between bacterial cells by **direct cell-to-cell contact** or by a **bridge-like connection** between two cells.
194
What is an F plasmid?
A type of fertility factor or F-factor
195
what’s a fertility factor?
Fertility factor (also known as the **F factor,** or **sex factor**) is a bacterial DNA sequence that allows a bacterium to produce a sex **pilus** necessary for *conjugation*.
A common form of F-factor is an F-plasmid
196
In bacteriology, What’s transformation?
pick up naked DNA from outside environment
197
What’s transduction?
transfer of genetic information **thru vector**, such as virus
198
what’s an Endospore?
a **dormant**, tough, and temporarily non-reproductive structure produced by certain bacteria;
Endospores enable bacteria to lay dormant for extended periods, even centuries.
199
What are autotrophs?
can fix CO2 and use it as carbon source
200
What are the *opposite* of autotrophs?
Heterotrophs
201
What are chemotrophs?
use **oxidation of** organic or inorganic matter as energy source
202
What are Lithotrophs?
Some types of bacteria that use **in**organic matter source for **electrons**
203
What are organotrophs?
type of chemotroph that gets electrons from **organic** matter
204
What does it mean to say that all fungi are exodigestors?
All fungi are exodigestors – **spit on food, lie in it, and absorb nutrients**
205
what does *Saprophytic* mean?
eats dead stuff
206
Fungus have Cell walls made from a polysaccharide called \_\_\_\_\_
chitin
207
Do fungus do asexual or sexual reproduction?
Can do asexual *and* sexual reproduction
208
Each turn of the **Krebs** cycle produces these molecules:
ATP;
FADH2
NADH
209
A glycolysis reaction produces these molecules:
ATP
NADH
Pyruvate
210
Minus-strand (i.e., negative-sense) RNA is transcribed into plus-strand RNA by this protein:
an RNA polymerase
211
most fungi are **[unicellular/multicellular]**
multicellular
212
What is hyphae?
A hypha (plural *hyphae*) is a long, branching filamentous structure of a fungus.
213
In most fungi, \_\_\_ are the main mode of vegetative growth
hyphae
214
Hyphae are collectively called :
mycelium
215
**nuclear pores** allow ___ to pass freely to and from cytosol
RNA
216
what happens inside a nucleolus
ribosomal subunits assembled;
rRNA transcribed
217
What are the 3 types of endocytosis?
phagocytosis,
receptor-mediated endocytosis,
pinocytosis
218
The bag that forms as a result of phagocytosis is called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
phagosome
219
what are mitotic spindle fibers made from?
Tubulin
| (EK bio 77)
220
in vertebrates, phagocytosis is seen more with \_\_\_\_.
WBC
221
What’s the word associated in pinocytosis?
invagination
222
Which cells can do pinocytosis?
most cells do pinocytosis
223
What is receptor mediated endocytosis?
R-M endocytosis refers specifically to uptake of macromolecules,
e.g. hormones and nutrients
224
Cholesterol is taken in to cell, by what type of endocytosis?
R-M endocytosis
225
rough ER is also called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
granular ER
226
A series of flattened, membrane bound sacs in the cell are called \_\_\_\_
Golgi complex
227
What role does the Rough ER play?
The **ribosomes** on the rough ER translates proteins;
**mRNA** of proteins binds to free ribosomes
228
ribosome-mRNA complex is commonly attached to:
Rough ER
229
What happens to proteins after they are made on the ER?
proteins carried from ER to golgi apparatus
230
Each layer or compartment of the golgi apparatus is called a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
cisterna
231
What does the Golgi do?
**Organizes and concentrates** the proteins;
golgi also **makes** lysosomes
232
What does the smooth ER do?
smooth ER – Lipid **synthesis**, including **steroids**;
**packages** proteins;
smooth ER ***in liver*** – **detoxes** many poisons;
assists in controlling calcium **ion concentration**
233
What does the smooth ER in liver do?
**detoxes** many poisons;
assists in **controlling calcium ion** concentration
234
What is **cytoskeleton**?
What's it made of?
A cellular scaffolding or skeleton contained within a cell's cytoplasm.
It consists of a **Network of filaments** and **tubules**
235
What do microfilaments do?
They squeeze membrane together in **phagocytosis** and **cytokinesis**;
They produce the **contracting force in muscles**;
involved in **cytoplasmic streaming** (**amoeba** movement)
236
What do microfilaments do in muscles?
## Footnote
They produce the contracting force in muscles
## Footnote
237
What is the important role of microfilaments in amoeba?
involved in cytoplasmic streaming (amoeba movement)
238
Which are larger: microtubules or microfilaments?
Microtubules
239
What are microtubules?
Rigid hollow tubes involved in flagella and cilia construction
240
What protein makes up microtubules?
Tubulin
241
what’s an axoneme?
The cytoskeletal structure of eukaryotic flagella
242
what arrangement does the axoneme consist of, specifically?
9 + 2 arrangement
243
Describe the 9 + 2 arrangement.
**Nine pairs** of microtubules forming a circle around **2** long microtubules
244
What is dynein?
Protein in flagella that that acts as a bridge that connects the 9 microtubules (of an axoneme) to each other
245
T/F:
## Footnote
the 9 + 2 arrangement is seen with both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
False.
**Only** with **eukaryotic** flagella
246
What is prokaryotic flagella made of?
A protein called flagellin
247
what’s a centrosome?
What is its function?
an organelle that serves as the main microtubule organizing center (MTOC) of the animal cell
248
what’s a centrosomes made of?
Centrosomes are composed of two orthogonally arranged centrioles.
249
what do centrioles do?
Make mitotic spindle fibers
Involved in production of flagella and cilia
250
what protein makes up microfilaments?
Actin
251
The three types of cellular jcns that connect animal cells are:
tight jcns,
desmosomes, and
gap jcns
252
what are tight jcns?
Form watertight seal from cell to cell; blocks water ions and other molecules and fluids.
253
the part of a cell facing the lumen of a cavity is called the ____ surface
apical
254
the opposite side of the apical surface is the ______ surface.
Basolateral
255
What are desmosomes?
Like welds holding the cell together
256
what are gap jcns?
Tunnels between cells
257
do mitochondria have RNA?
Yes
258
Mitochondrial DNA comes from the **[**father **/ ** mother **/** both**]**
mother
259
Mitochondria have **[1 / 2]** phospholipids layers.
2 phospholipid bilayers
260
What is basal lamina?
What is its function?
Thin sheet of extracellular matrix that separates epithelial cells from support tissue.
261
What does basement membrane refer to?
Same thing as basal lamina
262
what is collagen?
Structural protein found in extracellular matrix; gives cartilage and bone their strength
263
(1) what’s a glycocalyx?
(2) Where is it located?
(3) What pathology is it involved in?
--Animal analogy to plants’ cell wall;
--separates cell membrane from extracellular matrix.
--Cancer cells have abnormal glycocalyx
264
What are the 4 tissue types?
epithelial,
nervous,
muscle,
connective
265
What 3 body systems allow for intercellular communication?
nervous, paracrine, endocrine
266
nervous, paracrine, endocrine
## Footnote
which of the above 3 has the most *limited* reach?
Paracrine
267
what is the typical reach of the paracrine system?
A few millimeters
268
what are the messengers that travel through the nervous system?
Neurotransmitters
269
what are the messengers that travel through the paracrine system?
Hormones like prostaglandins
270
What types of tissue are connective?
Blood, lymph, bone, cartilage, adipose, tendons, ligaments
271
what are the messengers that travel through the endocrine system?
hormones that travel all over the body
272
The parts of a neuron are:
dendrites,
cell body soma,
axon,
axon terminal
273
What do the dendrites do?
Receive signal to be transmitted
274
what’s an axon?
The long, slender “tunnel” part of a neuron
275
What’s an axon hillock?
The part of a nerve cell that connects the soma with the axon
276
what’s a soma (when talking about neurons)?
The part of the neuron that has the nucleus, and from which the dendrites branch out.
277
The nerve signal travels a neuron from its _______ to its \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
from the **dendrites** to the axon **hillock**, where an action potential is generated and moves down the axon to the axon **terminal synapse**
278
What’s the action potential of neuron?
Disturbance in the electric field across the membrane of a neuron
279
What’s resting potential?
b/c of the work of the Na/K pump (among others), the neuron has a positive charge on the outside; and a negative charge on the inside of the cell membrane. So there’s an **electric potential difference (voltage) across the cell membrane**
280
What causes the resting potential in neurons?
b/c of the work of the **Na/K pump (among others)**
281
Where is the positive charge on a neuron?
Where is the negative charge on a neuron?
Positive charge is outside the cell
Negative charge is Inside.
282
What kind of genetic material do measles, rabies, and flu viruses have?
**minus**-strand RNA
283
in the neuron, an action potential begins at the \_\_\_\_\_
axon hillock
284
in neurons, what does **all-or-nothing** mean?
Action potentials are all-or-nothing. Meaning, the neuron’s **cell membrane completely depolarizes**, or ELSE no action potential is generated at all.
285
threshold potential is AKA:
threshold stimulus
286
What’s threshold potential?
the **minimum** stimulus needed, to generate an action potential
287
what’s Brownian motion?
Random motion of molecules
288
what are the types of synapses?
Chemical and electrical
289
which synapse is faster?
electrical
290
what is an electrical synapse?
Gap jcns between cells.
291
which cells have electrical synapses?
Cardiac muscle,
visceral smooth muscle,
very few neurons in the CNS
292
which synapse(s) are unidirectional?
Chemical synapse
293
the slowest step in the transfer of a nervous signal from one neuron to another is:
at the synapse
294
what other nervous cells exist other than neurons?
Glial cells, or
neuroglia
295
which are more abundant in humans, glial cells or neurons?
Glial cells
296
what is myelin?
Electrically insulating sheaths
297
what cells produce the myelin for the PNS?
Schwann cells
298
what advantage does myelin give to neurons?
Increases speed at which an axon can transmit signals
299
Do all living things have myelinated axons?
Only vertebrates
300
explain what white matter and gray matter refers to.
Myelinated axons appear white; nervous system cell bodies appear gray
301
on an axon, the gaps between myelin sheaths are called \_\_\_\_\_
nodes of Ranvier
302
What is noteworthy about the nodes of Ranvier?
the action potential jumps from one node to the next; this is called saltatory conduction
303
For the MCAT, what does “sympathetic” and “parasympathetic” mean?
sympathetic → **fight or flight**
parasympathetic → **rest and digest**
304
What specific branch of the nervous system are *sympathetic* and *parasympathetic* a part of?
They are under the **autonomic** branch of the NS
305
What is the other branch of the PNS, besides autonomic?
Somatic
306
under what branch of the PNS is “sensory” and “motor” seen?
**both** the **autonomic** branch AND the **somatic** branch
307
where are rod cells and cone cells found?
On the retina
308
the pigment on rod cells is called \_\_\_\_
rhodopsin
309
which cell distinguishes colors?
cones
310
what part of the ear is responsible for balance?
Semicircular canals
311
what part of the ear turns sound waves into neural signals that are sent thru the nerves into the brain?
Organ of Corti
312
CNS refers to:
brain and spinal cord
313
Another NAME for the **somatic** nervous system:
voluntary
314
the **involuntary** nervous system is AKA:
autonomic
visceral
315
the **voluntary** nervous system is AKA:
somatic
316
**[exocrine/endocrine]** glands release hormones into external environment thru **ducts**
exocrine
317
**[endocrine/exocrine]** glands release hormones **directly into bloodstream** in the capillaries
endocrine
318
sweat, oil, mucous, and digestive glands are all examples of **[endocrine/exocrine]** glands
e**X**ocrine
319
All hormones work by binding to proteins called \_\_\_\_\_\_
receptors
320
What is the e**nd**ocrine system responsible for?
endocrine system regulates:
metabolism,
growth and development, and
reproduction
321
What are the 3 basic **classes** of hormones?
peptide hormones,
steroid hormones, and
tyrosine derivatives
322
where inside the cell, are peptide hormones made?
made in **rough** ER; then sent to Golgi
323
In its initial stages, when a hormone is *just made* by the ER, what is it called? What form is it in?
preprohormone
324
**how** does a cell that manufactured a hormone, **release** it?
cell is stimulated by other hormone OR by nervous system,
cell releases hormone thru **exocytosis of secretory vesicle**
325
T/F:
## Footnote
peptide hormones are water soluble, so they dissolve in blood and blood carries them to destination
TRU
326
What’s an effector?
The target cell of a hormone; the cell that the hormone is intended to affect
327
when a peptide hormone arrives at a target cell, *how* does it enter the cell? Or does it enter the cell *at all?*
Hormone doesn’t diffuse thru membrane;
instead, **binds to receptor on** the membrane
328
what’s an *intra*cellular **second messenger**?
What does it do?
Chemicals that respond to hormone (the 1st messenger) by activating/deactivating enzymes and/or ion channels to create a series (“cascade”) of chemical reactions
329
Common **second messengers** include:
cAMP;
cGMP; and
calmodulin
330
steroid hormones are often derived from and are chemically similar to \_\_\_\_\_\_
cholesterol
331
Steroid hormones are **[carbohydrates/lipids/proteins]**
lipids!
332
T/F:
## Footnote
steroid hormones are water soluble, so they dissolve in blood and blood carries them to destination
usually **false**.
## Footnote
Steroids are lipids, so they **require a protein transport molecule** to be able to travel thru blood stream
333
T/F:
steroids diffuse thru the cell membrane of the effector.
tru
334
the 3 stuctures or organs within the body, that produce steroid hormones are :
placenta,
gonads,
adrenal cortex
335
What are the 2 **tyrosine** hormone **groups** that we have to know?
thyroid hormones, and
catecholamines
336
name the thyroid hormones.
Thriiodothyronine; and
thyroxine
337
name the **catecholamines**.
epinephrine,
norepinephrine,
and
dopamine
338
What’s another **name** for thyroxine?
T**4**
339
What are the groups of peptide hormones we have to know for the MCAT?
**4** large groups:
Anterior pituitary hormones (8 hormones);
Posterior pituitary (2 hormones);
the parathyroid hormone PTH (1);
the pancreatic hormones (2)
340
What are the important Steroid hormones we must know for the MCAT?
**2** major groups:
## Footnote
Adrenal **_cortex_** hormones (glucocorticoids and mineral corticoids)
[the specific mineralocorticoid we should know is *aldosterone*];
[the major glucocorticoid we should know is *cortisol*];
and the **_gonadal_** hormones
341
Where are the catecholamines **formed**?
Adrenal **medulla**
342
What **type** of hormone are the catecholamines? Steroid, peptide, tyrosine?
They’re tyrosine derivatives
343
epinephrine and norepinephrine are **[water/lipid]** soluble
water
344
the thyroid hormones (T3 & T4) are **{water/lipid}** -soluble
lipid
345
what does the mnemonic device **FLAT PG** help you memorize?
The hormones of the anterior pituitary
346
another name for the anterior pit is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
adenohypophysis
347
the adrenal cortex produces **{steroid / peptide / tyrosine}** hormones
steroid
348
the thyroid produces **{steroid / peptide / tyrosine}** hormones.
**tyrosine** (e.g. T3 & T4) and **peptide** (calcitonin) hormones
349
the adrenal **medulla** produces **[steroid / peptide / tyrosine]** hormones
*catecholamines*, which are **tyrosine** derivatives
350
How does the hypothalamus control the anterior pituitary?
It controls the pituitary by releasing hormones of its own that it sends to the pituitary.
351
what **blood supply** connects the hypothalamus with the pit gland?
**Hypophyseal portal** system – blood vessels from hypothalamus to anterior pituitary
352
How many hormone are made and released by the anterior pituitary?
8
353
List the 8 *anterior* pituitary hormones.
FLAT PEG =
## Footnote
**F**SH – follicle-stimulating hormone
**L**H – leutinizing hormone
**A**CTH - adrenocorticotropin
**T**SH – thyroid-stimulating hormone
**P**rolactin
beta-**_E_**ndorphins
h**G**H – human Growth hormone
& MSH - melanocyte stimulating hormone
354
the pituitary releases **[peptide / lipid /tyrosine-derivative]** hormones.
Pit makes **peptide** hormones
355
Another name for human growth hormone is \_\_\_\_\_\_.
somatotropin
356
What does hGH do?
Stimulates **growth** of almost all cells of body.
Increases **mitosis**, Increases **transcription** and **translation**.
357
how is hGH unique among the hormones of the ant pit?
It doesn’t have a specific target tissue, unlike the other ant pit hormones
358
What does the ACTH do?
stimulates adrenal cortex to release **_gluco_**corticoids
359
what mechanism does ACTH use to stimulate the adrenal cortex?
Stimulates the adrenal cortex via the **2nd messenger system** using **cAMP**
360
What does the TSH do, specifically?
stimulates thyroid to release **thyroxin** and **triiodothyronine**
361
How does the TSH stimulate the thyroid?
Using the 2nd messenger system using **cAMP**
362
What does prolactin do?
Promotes milk **_production_** (***NOT* release** of milk)
363
What is another name for vasopressin?
ADH
364
**Why** is the post. pit. called the neurohypophysis?
it is largely a collection of axonal projections from the hypothalamus that terminate behind the anterior pituitary gland.
365
T/F:
the post pit makes hormones.
False:
## Footnote
Post pituitary hormones **made in hypothalamus**, but released from post pit
366
What hormones does the post pit release?
ADH and
oxytocin
367
What’s somatotropin?
hGH
368
What does oxytocin do?
uterine **contraction** during pregnancy and
milk **LETDOWN**/ejection
369
What does ADH do?
↑↑ blood pressure; &
affects water absorption by kidney
370
aldosterone is a \_\_\_\_\_corticoid
**mineralo**corticoid
371
What does aldosterone do?
Acts in the kidneys to:
↓↓ Na excretion;
↑↑ K excretion
↓↓ Water excretion
372
What does cortisol do?
**↑↑** blood **glucose** levels (by stimulating ***gluconeogenesis*** in the liver);
↓↓ bone formation;
↓↓ the immune system's B-cell mediated response to inflammation
373
What’s gluconeogenesis?
Creation of glucose and glycogen in the liver
374
What is the fcn of the thyroid hormones?
Increase BASAL METABOLIC rate.
375
what’s basal metabolic rate?
The resting metabolic rate
376
What are the Islets of Langerhans?
The islets of Langerhans are the regions of the pancreas that contain its **endo**crine (i.e., hormone-producing) **cells**
377
What does calcitonin do?
Lowers blood calcium
378
Is the pancreas an **endo**- or **exo**crine gland?
Both
379
what two important hormones are released by the pancreas?
Insulin and
glucagon
380
what **cells** of the pancreas release insulin?
Beta cells
381
What does insulin do?
Promotes **entry** of glucose into cells; thereby **↓↓ blood glucose level**
382
what hormone has nearly the **opposite** effect of insulin?
glucagon
383
What cells of the pancreas release glucagon?
Alpha cells
384
what does glucagon do?
↑↑ gluconeogenesis and Glycogenolysis;
↑↑ blood glucose level
385
**How many** parathyroid glands exist?
4
386
what hormone does the parathyroid gland release?
PTH
387
What does PTH do?
↑↑↑ concentration of **Ca ions** in blood
388
what hormone has the opposite effect of parathyroid hormone?
calcitonin
389
where does sperm production occur?
Seminiferous tubules
390
In response to FSH, what occurs in the body?
(DESCRIBE specific)
**Growth of ovarian follicles** in _females_;
_Males_**: **FSH stimulates **primary** spermato***cytes*** to undergo the **first** division of meiosis, to **form secondary** spermato***cytes*.**
391
FSH acts synergistically with ___ hormone
LH
392
what does LH do?
Luteinizing hormone **causes ovulation**;
In _females_, an acute rise of LH called the **LH surge** triggers **ovulation** and **development of the corpus luteum.**
In _males_, where LH had also been called interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH), it stimulates Leydig cell **production of testosterone.**
393
what is estradiol?
A sex hormone, a **type of estrogen**
394
What does estradiol do?
Prepares the uterine wall for pregnancy
395
most estradiol in women is produced by the ___ cells.
the **granulosa cells** of the ovaries
396
the luteal surge is an example of ____ feedback
positive feedback
397
What’s the zona pellucida?
The zona pellucida (plural zon**ae** pellucid**ae**) is a glycoprotein membrane surrounding the plasma membrane of an oocyte.
398
what’s an oocyte?
An immature ovum
399
When an egg is released from the ovary, the follicle surrounding it becomes the \_\_\_\_\_\_
corpus luteum
400
What does the corpus luteum do?
Secretes hormones thru pregnancy
401
if there is **no** pregnancy, what happens to corpus luteum?
Degrades into corpus **albicans**
402
what are the Leydig cells?
Where are they found?
What are they AKA?
And what is their fcn?
Leydig cells, also known as **interstitial cells of Leydig**, are found adjacent to the seminiferous tubules in the testicle.
They **produce testosterone** *in the presence of luteinizing hormone (LH)*
403
where in the body is sperm made?
Seminiferous tubules
404
what does **androgen** mean?
Any natural or synthetic compound **stimulates or controls** the **development** and **maintenance** of **male** characteristics
405
what are the organs that contribute to seminal fluid?
Seminal vesicles;
prostate; and
bulbourethral gland
406
what are the Cowper’s glands **AKA**?
AKA **bulbourethral gland**
407
what is the function of prolactin?
PROlactin – milk PROduction
408
what are the 3 stages of the menstrual cycle?
Follicular phase;
luteal phase; and
flow
409
when does the **follicular** phase *begin*?
When does it *end*?
Begins with the development of the follicle and ends at ovulation
410
describe the luteal phase.
Luteal phase begins with ___ and ends with \_\_\_.
Begins with ovulation and
ends with degeneration of corpus luteum into corpus albicans
411
describe flow phase
3 days of shedding of uterine lining
412
where in the body does fertilization take place?
Fallopian tubes
413
what’s the acrosome?
Bag of enzymes on the head of sperm
414
when the nuclei of the sperm and ovum unite, the new cell is called a \_\_\_\_\_\_.
zygote
415
what’s a morula?
When zygote is composed of 8 or more cells
416
what’s a blastocyst?
The zygote turns into a blastocyst, a Hollow ball filled with fluid.
417
by the time the baby attaches to the mother’s uterus, it’s called a :
blastocyst
418
what hormone does the fertilized egg secrete after it implants in mother?
HCG
419
what does HCG stand for?
Human chorionic gonadotropin
420
what is the function of HCG?
Prevents degeneration of corpus luteum
421
why is the corpus luteum maintained?
So that the corpus can continue secreting estrogen and progesterone
422
what does a pregnancy test, test for?
for HCG in the urine and blood of the mother
423
what’s physically in the way of the sperm getting into the oocyte?
The granulosa cells and
the zona pellucida
424
what does the blastocyst turn into?
Gastrula
425
what happens during gastrulation?
Cells begin to move around. In mammals, a **primitive streak** is formed. The **3** primary **germ layers** are formed
426
what’s a primitive streak?
Why is it important?
[The primitive streak is a structure that forms during the early stages of avian, reptilian and mammalian embryonic development.]
During the early stages of development, the primitive streak is the structure that will **establish bilateral symmetry**, **determine the site of gastrulation** and **initiate germ layer formation**.
427
name the 3 primary germ layers:
ectoderm;
endoderm;
mesoderm
428
what does the **ecto**derm give rise to?
Over coverings of body, like:
skin (epidermis),
nails,
tooth enamel, AND
nervous system
the eye,
**inner** ear, and,
as neural **crest** cells, to many connective tissues of the head
429
what does the **endo**derm turn into?
bladder
Liver,
Lungs,
pancreas, and
Lining of digestive tract/ alimentary canal
430
what does mesoderm turn into?
“the stuff between the inner and outer covering of body:
muscle, bone, and *the rest*”**\*\***
**\*\***these are guidelines for the MCAT, NOT fixed rules
431
what does the gastrula turn into?
And what is that process of turning, called?
Gastrula undergoes **neurulation** to become **neurula**
432
(1) what is the **notochord**?
(2) From what embryonic **layer** does it arise?
(3) What is its purpose?
The notochord is a flexible, rod-shaped body found in embryos of all chordates.
It is composed of cells derived from the **mesoderm** and defines the **primitive axis of the embryo.**
433
When does the neural **plate** form?
In human embryology, formation of neural plate is the **first step of neurulation**. It is created by a flat thickening opposite to the primitive streak of the ectoderm.
434
Does sound have the same speed through monoatomic gases, diatomic gases, and polyatomic gases?
Given the same pressure and gas density, monoatomic gases permit sound to travel thru at greater speed than diatomic and polyatomic gases.
435
Does sound have the same speed through a gas, regardless of its temperature?
Sound travels faster through hotter air than colder air
(TBR Physics Book 2, page 5)
436
When we talk about sound, what does pitch mean?
The frequency of that sound
437
where does the digestion of protein begin in the body?
Stomach
438
Where are the crypts of Lieberkühn found?
Small intestine and
colon
439
where does the digestion of carbs begin in the body?
mouth
440
what is digested in the esophagus?
Nothing
441
the 3 sections of the Small intestine are:
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
442
what’s chyme?
The fluid that the stomach turns food into
443
what’s the pH of a full stomach?
2
444
the 4 major cell types in the stomach are :
mucous cells;
chief cells;
parietal cells; and
G cells
445
chief cells are AKA?
Peptic cells
446
parietal cells are AKA?
Oxyntic cells
447
what does the G cell do?
Secretes gastrin
448
where in the digestive system are goblet cells found?
Small intestines and
colon
449
what is gastrin?
a peptide hormone
450
what does gastrin do?
Stimulate secretion of HCl in stomach
451
what nutrients are absorbed in the stomach?
No absorption occurs in the stomach
452
what are chief cells AKA?
Peptic cells
453
what do **chief** cells do?
releases **pepsinogen** and
gastric **lipase**
454
what is pepsinogen?
The precursor to pepsin
455
what is pepsin?
Enzyme that breaks down protein
456
what do parietal cells do?
Secrete HCl
457
where does most of the digestion take place in the digestive system?
Small intestine
458
what’s a lacteal?
Where is it found
The lymphatic vessel inside each villus of the *small* intestine
459
what does the lacteal do?
Absorb fat
460
what do goblet cells do?
Secrete the precursor to mucus
461
what do the crypts of Lieberkühn secrete?
secrete various enzymes, including
peptidases,
sucrase, maltase, lactase and
*intestinal* lipase
462
what thing prevents food from entering the lungs?
Epiglottis
463
why is the pH of the duodenum different from the stomach?
Presence of bicarbonate ion
464
where does the bicarbonate ion in the duodenum, come from?
Secreted by pancreas
465
what is the pH of the duodenum?
6
466
what are the enzymes released by the pancreas *into the small intestine*?
Trypsin(ogen),
chymotripsin(ogen),
elastase,
carboxypeptidase,
pancreatic amylase,
lipase,
phospholipase,
ribonuclease, and deoxyribonuclease
467
what does trypsin do?
Degrade proteins into polypeptides
468
what does chymotripsin do?
cleaves peptide bonds where the carboxyl side of the bond (the P1 position) is a hydrophobic amino acid (**tyrosine**, **tryptophan**, or **phenylalanine**)
469
where is bile stored?
Gall bladder
470
where is bile made?
Liver
471
through what opening/path does the gall bladder release bile?
Cystic duct
472
What pathway connects the pancreas to duodenum?
Pancreatic duct
473
what is the healthy bacteria in the colon?
E. coli
474
what food that we eat contains chitin?
mushrooms
475
is sucrose a mono- or disaccharide?
di-
476
what 2 monos make up sucrose?
glucose and
fructose
477
what 2 monos make up lactose?
glucose and
galactose
478
when the liver metabolizes fat or protein for energy, blood acidity **[increases/decreases/stays the same]**
increases
479
the major osmoregulatory protein in the blood is \_\_\_
albumin
480
the Bowman’s capsule and the glomerulus together are called the \_\_\_\_.
renal corpuscle
481
the fcn of the renal corpuscle is \_\_\_.
filtration
482
the fcn of the distal tubule is to \_\_\_\_.
The net effect of this is to:
to **reabsorb** Na and Ca but **secrete** K, H, and bicarb anion.
**Net** effect: to ↓↓ filtrate osmolarity
483
fcn of the proximal tubule is \_\_\_\_.
reabsorption
484
trace the step by step PATHway of liquid thru a nephron.
Glomerulus → Bowman’s capsule → ***proximal*** convoluted tubule → **descending** part/limb of the loop of Henle → **thin** ascending limb of the loop of Henle → **thick** ascending limb of the loop of Henle → ***Distal*** convoluted tubule → **collecting** duct → renal **calyx** → renal **pelvis**
485
what does the juxtaglomerular apparatus do?
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule
486
the fcn of the loop of Henle is \_\_\_\_\_.
to ↑↑ the solute concentration and thus:
creates a concentration gradient in the renal medulla
↑↑ osmotic pressure of the renal medulla
487
List 8 **fcns** of the liver.
blood **storage**,
**filtration**,
**detox**ification,
RBC **destruction**,
**bile** production,
**metabolism** of carb and protein and fat
488
what are the fcns of the kidney?
filtration/excretion,
homeostasis,
control of plasma pH
489
what hormones act on the **distal** tubule?
ADH and
aldosterone
490
where is fluid pressure (**hydrostatic**) the *greatest* in the blood circulatory system?
Straight out of the left ventricle
491
(1) where in the body is fluid (**hydrostatic**) **pressure** the *weakest*?
(2) Why is it the weakest at that location??
As blood *enters* vena cava.
## Footnote
Reason: hydrostatic pressure ↓↓ from aorta to vena cava. Pressure goes ↓↓ the farther away from the ventricles.
492
where is blood flow the slowest?
Speed of blood lowest at capillaries
493
trace the PATHway of blood thru the blood vessels as it enters the heart as deoxygenated blood.
Vena cava empty into right atrium →
tricuspid valve →
rt vent →
pulmonary *semilunar* valve →
pul arteries → arterioles (in lung) → caps (@ alveoli) →
venules (in lung) → veins (in lung) → pulmonary veins →
left atrium → bicuspid valve → left ventricle →
aortic *semilunar* valve
494
What specific part within the heart triggers heart contraction?
SA node
495
where is the SA node located?
in right atrium
496
What nerve triggers the SA node?
SA node innervated by vagus nerve; ***BUT***, SA node contracts all **by itself!**
497
what does vagus nerve do to SA node?
Slows the contractions of the SA node
498
is the vagus nerve part of the symp or parasymp nervous system?
a **para**sympathetic nerve
499
if you sever the connection between the vagus nerve and the heart, will the heart rate **[increase/decrease/no effect]**?
Cut vagus nerve, and heart rate will increase
500
trace the PATH of an action potential from the SA node thru the rest of the heart:
SA node → AV node → bundle of His → Purkinje fibers → cardiac muscles
501
where’s the bundle of His located?
In the wall separating the ventricles
502
where’s the location of Purkinje fibers?
located in the inner ventricular walls of the heart,
just beneath the endocardium.
503
What are Purkinje fibers?
Their fcn?
These fibers are **specialized myocardial fibers** that **conduct** an **electrical stimulus** or **impulse** that enables the heart to contract in a coordinated fashion.
504
a ______ carries blood away from the heart.
Artery
505
what part of the brain controls the diaphragm?
Medulla oblongata
506
how many polypeptide units make up hemoglobin?
4
507
how many **heme** cofactors does each polypeptide subunit of hemoglobin have?
1 per polypeptide
508
what’s a heme cofactor?
Organic molecule with iron atom at its center
509
how many heme cofactors does hemoglobin have?
4
510
what does an **oxygen dissociation curve** graph basically show you?
The oxygen saturation of hemoglobin
511
What can affect an oxygen dissociation curve?
CO2 pressure,
pH, and
blood temp
512
What does ↑↑ the CO2 do to the oxygen dissociation curve?
Curve **shifts** to the **_right_**
513
What does **↑↑** the **pH** do to the oxygen dissociation curve?
Curve shifts to the **left**
514
What does ↑↑ the temperature do to the oxygen dissociation curve?
Curve shifts to the **right**
515
What does a shift to the right, in the oxygen dissociation curve, signify?
↓↓ of hemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen
516
If CO2 leaves the body, how is blood pH affected?
pH increases ↑↑
(CO2 **+** water → bicarb anion **+** proton)
517
what is hematocrit?
Percentage by volume of red blood cells
518
what is **albumin**? Its **fcn**?
Protein found in blood plasma, that
**regulates** osmotic pressure of blood; and
**transports** fatty acids and steroids
519
what’s serum?
blood Plasma from which **fibrinogen** was removed
520
what lives longer:
**granulo**- or **a**granulocytes?
**_A_**granulocytes live very **_long_** time,
granulocytes very **short** time
521
which are the granular leukocytes?
B.E.N.
522
what is the most abundant of the 5 leukocytes?
Neutrophils
523
What’s the **2nd most** abundant leukocyte?
Lymphocytes
524
What’s an antigen?
**_ANTI_**body **_GEN_**erator
Foreign particle in body
525
list the **_a_**granulocytes:
lymphocytes and monocytes
526
What are the 4 possible functions of muscle?
Body movement;
stabilization of body position;
movement of stuff thru body; and
generating heat to maintain body temperature
527
what does tendon do?
Connects muscle to bone
528
what is a ligament?
Connects bone to bone
529
what is an agonist?
Muscle responsible for the movement
530
what is an antagonist?
Muscle that works against the agonist
531
what’s a sarcomere?
Smallest func'nal unit of skeletal muscle
532
starting from a muscle, what are the parts of a muscle, right down to the individual sarcomere's components?
(ignore the sheats, like perimysium and epimysium)
Muscle → muscle fasciculus → muscle cell → myofibril → sarcomere → thick and thin filament
533
what’s a sarcolemma?
the **cell membrane** of a **striated** muscle "fiber" (i.e., muscle cell)
534
**[T/F]** a muscle fiber and myofibril are the same thing.
F.
## Footnote
Several myofibrils (bound together by the sarcolemma) form a muscle cell. Muscle cell is the same thing as muscle fiber.
535
How many nuclei do cardiac muscle cells contain?
1
536
How many nuclei do skeletal muscle contain?
multiple
537
How many nuclei does smooth contain?
1
538
What are the functions of bones?
Support of soft tissue;
protection of internal organs;
movement;
mineral storage;
blood cell production;
energy storage
539
What do oste**b**lasts do?
Secrete collagen and organic compounds on which bone is formed.
540
can oste**b**lasts do mitosis?
no
541
from what cells do osteoblasts develop from?
Osteogenic**/**osteoprogenitor cells
542
what do osteocytes do?
Exchange nutrients and waste materials with blood
543
what are osteo**c**lasts?
Reabsorb bone matrix
544
the long shaft of a long bone is called?
Diaphysis
545
what marrow does spongy bone contain?
red
546
in adults, what bone marrow does the **compact** bone house?
Yellow bone marrow
547
what are the 4 types of bones?
Long, short, flat, or irregular
548
list the **fcns** of the skin.
Blood reservoir;
Environmental sensory input;
excretion;
immunity;
Protection;
Thermoregulation;
vitamin D synthesis
549
what does phenotype mean?
phenotype is an organism's **observable characteristics** or traits.
550
Give examples of phenotype
an organism's morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, behavior, and products of behavior (such as a bird's nest).
551
what does genotype mean?
genotype is the **genetic makeup** of a cell, an organism, or an individual (i.e. the specific allele makeup of the individual) usually with reference to a specific character under consideration.
552
what does **homologous** mean?
*Homologous chromosomes* are chromosome pairs of the same:
length,
centromere position, and
staining pattern,
and have genes for the same characteristics located at corresponding loci.
553
How are homologous chromosomes inherited?
One homologous chromosome is inherited from the organism's mother; the other from the organism's father.
554
what is a diploid?
Diploid (indicated by 2n = 2x) cells have two homologous copies of each chromosome (i.e., a homologous pair), usually **one** of the homologues **coming from the mother and the other** homologue chromosome **from the father**.
So **for any 1 trait**, a diploid individual will have 2 chromosomes, each containing a separate gene that codes for that specific trait.
[these 2 chromosomes are called HOMOLOGOUS]
555
what does “complete dominance” mean for diploids?
Complete dominance occurs **when the phenotype of a heterozygote is completely indistinguishable** from the phenotype of a dominant homozygote.
556
what’s an allele?
2 or more forms of a particular gene.
Diploid organisms have one copy of each gene (and therefore one **allele**) on each chromosome.
If both alleles are the same, they are **homo**zygotes. If the alleles are different, they are **hetero**zygotes.
557
What is a homozygote?
Organism with homozygous alleles
558
What does homozygous and heterozygous mean?
A cell is said to be homozygous for a particular gene when identical alleles of the gene are present on both homologous chromosomes.
A diploid organism is heterozygous at a gene locus when its cells contain two different alleles of a gene.
Heterozygous genotypes are represented by a capital letter (representing the dominant allele) and a lowercase letter (representing the recessive allele), such as "Rr" or "Ss".
559
What does karyotype mean?
A karyotype is the number and appearance of chromosomes in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell.
Karyotypes describe the number of chromosomes, and what they look like under a light microscope.
Attention is paid to their length, the position of the centromeres, banding pattern, any differences between the sex chromosomes, and any other physical characteristics.
560
Under the new taxonomical classification system, what are the new superkingdoms called?
Domains
561
list the domains.
Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya
562
which former ‘kingdoms’ are under the new domain *eukarya*?
Protista, fungi, plantae, animalia
563
which former kingdom is considered outdated by the new domain system?
Monera. Monera is now split into bacteria and archaea
564
What hormone stimulates gluconeogenesis in the liver?
Cortisol
565
ADH **[**raises **/** lowers**]** blood pressure.
raises
566
Vasopressin causes your body to increase its:
↑↑ peripheral vascular resistance; and
↑↑ arterial blood pressure, and
↑↑ water absorption
567
Membrane that wraps several myofibrils together to form a muscle cell is called: ?
sarcolemma
568
What does TCA stand for?
Tricarboxylic acid cycle
