Madeira Flashcards
Explain the history of Madeira and the island of Madeira?
Madeira is a Portuguese island in the Atlantic Ocean, around 600 km from the coast of Morocco. The fortified wine made on this island is also called Madeira.
The island of Madeira was discovered in 1419 and was first colonised by Portuguese merchants and their labourers. Large areas of forest were burnt to provide room for agriculture and increase the fertility of the soil. Terraces and irrigation channels were built. Although initially sugar, wheat and vines were the main crops and exports, the sugar industry declined during the 16th Century mainly due to competition from other countries, and wine became the main export. Exports of wine grew further in the 17th and 18th Centuries as British merchants arrived in Madeira and sent the wine to their colonies in North American and the West Indies.
It was found that long periods of time pitching and rolling in the holds of ships sailing to and from the tropics improved the quality of the wines, and soon the wines were used as hold ballast on such trips, with the sole purpose of improving the quality of the wine.
The 19th and 20th centuries were more difficult for the Madeira wine trade. Powdery mildew and then phylloxera hit the island in the mid to late 19th century, destroying vines and reducing yields. During the 20th century, Prohibition in the USA, two World Wars and the Russian Revolution negatively impacted the wine trades in many of Madeira’s major markets at the time. Towards the end of the century sales became more stable, but consumer tastes had changed, and sales were far below their peak in the 18th century.
The Instituto do Vinho da Madeira was founded in 1979 to regulate Madeira production, which was superceded in 2006 by the Instituto do Vinho, do Bordado e do Artesanato da Madeira, IP-RAM (IVBAM). In 1986 Portugal became part of the EU and further regulations were introduced. This together with EU subsidies led to improvements in the quality of Madeira wines, and this investment in quality has continued into the 21st century.
Explain the climate and vineyard locations of Madeira?
In general, Madeira experiences warm summers (averages around 20–22°C / 68–72°F) and mild winters (averages around 16–17°C / 61–63°F); lack of winter dormancy can be a problem in the warmest sites. As a mountainous island, there is a range of microclimates, with temperatures becoming cooler with altitude. The mountains, reaching up to 1,800m, cause moist air in the humid winds arriving from the north-west to cool and condense into rainclouds, meaning that the north and centre of the island are considerably cooler and wetter (rainfall can exceed 3,000 mm per year in the centre) than the south. The majority of rain falls in the autumn and winter.
Madeira has an area of approximately 74,000 ha, of which only around 450 ha are planted with vineyards.1 The vineyards can be found up to altitudes of around 800 m and tend to be located relatively near the coast with forests covering the mountainous centre of the island.
The soils are of volcanic origin and high in nutrients. This, together with plentiful rain, provides fertile conditions and therefore vigorous vines.
Explain the grape varieties of Madeira?
The powdery mildew and phylloxera that devastated Madeira’s vineyards in the late 19th century dramatically changed the make-up of grape varieties on the island. The wines from varieties such as Malvasia and Terrantez was already highly esteemed, and Verdelho was the most planted grape variety. However, with vinifera varieties decimated, producers began to plant American and hybrid vines that were more resistant to pests and disease, and could therefore produce large, reliable crops. However, these vines could not produce wines of the same quality as vinifera varieties, and hence, with help from EU schemes, a significant proportion of these vineyards has been replanted. (That said, it is still thought that a substantial number of Madeira’s vineyards are planted with American vines and hybrids, although these grapes cannot be used to make Madeira.)
Several vinifera varieties are permitted for the production of Madeira. These were traditionally categorized into ‘noble’, ‘good’ and ‘authorized’; the noble category reserved for Sercial, Verdelho, Boal and Malvasia. However, they are now split into ‘recommended’ varieties and ‘authorised’ varieties, the latter category mainly made up of varieties that were introduced after phylloxera but have not shown the same potential for quality as the recommended varieties. Tinta Negra is the main vinifera variety that has been planted since the arrival of phylloxera, able to produce high yields and being relatively easy to grow. It was at one point categorised as ‘good’ but now is in the ‘recommended’ category alongside the traditional varieties of Sercial, Verdelho, Boal, Malvasia and Terrantez. These traditional varieties have remained important for the quality of wine that they can produce, although their plantings are small.
Explain the grape variety Tinta Negra?
This black grape is the most planted variety on the island. It is high yielding and easy to grow. It is only since 2015, that producers have been able to state the grape variety, Tinta Negra, on the label. However, much Tinta Negra is used to make wines where a level of sweetness rather than a grape variety appears on the label (see Styles of Madeira). It is used to produce wines at all sweetness levels.
Explain the grape variety Sercial?
This grape is known for its high acidity and is used in the driest styles of Madeira. It is late ripening and especially in cool sites can be the latest variety to be picked, barely above the minimum level of potential alcohol. It is resistant to powdery mildew but susceptible to botrytis bunch rot and can experience poor fruit set. Plantings are small.
Explain the grape variety Verdelho?
This grape is the second most planted vinifera variety. It has high acidity, but slightly lower levels than Sercial. It is susceptible to botrytis bunch rot, coulure, and downy and powdery mildews.
Explain the grape variety Boal?
Boal is an umbrella term for a number of grape varieties. The variety that grows on Madeira is Boal Cachudo, and is also named Malvasia Fina, as is found in White Port. It grows best on the warm, low altitude sites in the south of the island. However, it is susceptible to drought and therefore needs adequate irrigation to thrive. It is typically used to produce semi-sweet wines.
Explain the grape variety Malvasia?
This is an umbrella term for a number of grape varieties. Malvasia Cândida was historically
the most important Malvasia, and is still highly prized for its quality. However, it is very susceptible to powdery mildew, which can limit yields, and therefore there are currently only small plantings. Malvasia de São Jorge is the most common Malvasia grown on Madeira. It can produce relatively high yields but is susceptible to botrytis bunch rot.
Explain the grape variety Terrantez?
Plantings of this variety are very limited. It is susceptible to powdery mildew and botrytis bunch rot and is therefore picked soon after it reaches 9% abv potential alcohol.
Explain the vineyard management of Madeira?
Madeira is a mountainous island and many vineyards are terraced to make planting on steep slopes viable. Vines are generally trained and trellised into a pergola system, here called latadas. This type of trellis allows air circulation above and beneath the vine which helps reduce incidence of fungal disease in the humid climate. It also permits other crops to be grown on the land underneath, making effective use of a small landholding. Vineyards are also planted with cordon-trained, VSP-trellised vines (here called espaldeira).
Madeira’s warm, humid climate means disease pressure is high. Downy mildew, botrytis bunch rot and Phomopsis are all problems, and although canopy management techniques such as shoot positioning and leaf removal may help, fungicide sprays MADeiRA 49 are usually necessary.
Irrigation is widely practised:rainwater is carried from the centre of the island to vineyard areas by levadas, small irrigation channels. With lower rainfall, irrigation is more required in the south of the island.
The official harvest date is decided by IVBAM in consultation with producers and growers. It is usually at the end of August or the start of September. Given Madeira’s topography, harvesting tends to be done by hand. The minimum potential alcohol at harvest must be 9% abv, and in general the grapes are picked with average potential alcohols of no more than 11% abv. Prices paid for grapes differ based on grape health and grape variety (the traditional varieties of Sercial, Verdelho, Boal, Malvasia and Terrantez fetch much more than Tinta Negra). The maximum permitted yield varies according to the vintage conditions, but high yields of 150 hL/ha are not unusual. This is easy to reach with fertile soils and plentiful water for irrigation.
Explain the winemaking of Madeira?
On arrival at the winery the grapes are checked for weight, health and potential alcohol (representatives of IVBAM must be present for the arrival of all grapes), destemmed and crushed.
The use of skin contact varies according to the producer. Wines from Tinta Negra are often fermented on their skins, particularly for medium sweet and sweet styles of wine. Some producers have introduced a period of skin contact for wines made from white grapes.
The fermentation usually takes place in stainless steel vessels with ambient yeasts. The timing of fortification will depend on the style of wine that is being produced, with sweeter styles being fortified earlier in the fermentation to retain more residual sugar; wine for sweet styles may ferment for a little as two days, whereas wine for dry styles may ferment for around a week. The fortifying alcohol must be 96% abv grape spirit (compared to 77% abv in Port), and therefore it will be neutral in style. Producers are free to purchase the alcohol from wherever they choose, but its quality must be checked by IVBAM. After fortification the wines will usually contain 17–18% abv.
Before maturation the wines will be fined (bentonite, gelatine and albumin are commonly used) and filtered (usually with diatomaceous earth) to clarify the wine. The batches of wines will also be tasted and classified according to their style and quality. This will determine their maturation pathway.
Explain the maturation of Madeira wines?
The maturation process for modern Madeira replicates the hot, oxidative conditions that the wine was subject to when being shipped in the 17th and early 18th centuries. There are two options:
ESTUFAGEM
This process involves the wine being heated in temperature controlled stainless steel vessels called estufas. The tanks are heated to 45–50°C (113–122°F; a maximum of 50°C / 122°F is permitted) using a heating coil or water jacket, and the wine must remain in tank for a minimum of 3 months. Representatives from IVBAM seal the vessel at the start of maturation and will break the seal when maturation is complete. Although the tank is sealed, it is usually not filled to the top, permitting some oxidation. The wine is then allowed to cool, it is filtered and then left to rest for 6–12 months. Wines may not be sold until the 31st October of the second year following harvest. Wines produced by estufagem used to be described as baked or stewed, however, the process has improved significantly over recent years. That said, this quick ageing process does not produce wines with the same level of complexity as the more gradual canteiro process. It tends to be used for 3- and 5-year-old wines made from Tinta Negra.
CANTEIRO
This is a longer and more resource-intensive process associated with higher quality wines. The wines are matured in old oak vessels in a warm environment. This may be a loft or warehouse, both of which are heated by the sun. The vessels are usually 400–700 L in size, and left with a small headspace of air, to aid oxidative development. Temperatures usually range from 25–40°C (77–104°F). It is not uncommon for producers to own warehouses that reach different average temperatures (depending on location and design) and it is also usual for the warehouses to have warmer and cooler areas within them (e.g. vessels stored nearer the roof will be warmer than those nearer the ground). It is typical for young wines to be stored in the warmest conditions, before being moved to cooler parts of the warehouse for extended ageing. Humidity is high, but in these warm conditions, evaporation of water still causes the alcohol to rise very gradually to 19–20% abv. This also causes other compounds in the wine, such as sugars, acidity and aroma compounds to concentrate. Volatile acidity also rises. Madeira is rarely racked, but due to the loss of water, barrels need regular topping up. These wines cannot be sold until three years after the 1st January following harvest, and, as with the estufagem system, a representative of IVBAM must seal and unseal the vessels.
Further ageing may be carried out often in larger wooden vessels, stainless steel vats or demi- johns to limit further evaporation. Beyond the minimum permitted time periods for estufagem and canteiro, producers may apply to IVBAM for an EU subsidy to offset the cost of ageing their wine if they agree to age it for a further five years. The subsidy depends on the volume in hectolitres.
IVBAM will seal the vessel and then unseal it after 5 years. The producer can request permission to check the wine and adjust it as necessary, under the supervision of arepresentative from IVBAM, within the five years. As the five years comes to an end, the producer can decide whether to apply for another five-year subsidy.
The maturation processes used for Madeira have a significant impact on the style of the wine. Oxidation causes the colour to gradually turn to brown and primary aromas to develop into tertiary notes of dried fruit. The warm ageing conditions speed up oxidation and cause caramelisation of the sugar in the wine. The final wines have a range of flavours dependent on style, age and quality including dried fruits such as apricot and raisin, caramel, chocolate, nuts and often a smoky character.
Most Madeira is a non-vintage product, and therefore blending wines from different vintages and different vineyard locations for consistency of style year-on-year is standard practice. There will also be some variability amongst different barrels in different areas of
the warehouse and therefore this can also help attain a certain style or achieve consistency. Blending can also be used to achieve a certain style or for complexity. Wines in the youngest age categories may be matured mainly in estufas but the blend may include some older canteiro wines to bring a greater complexity of flavours.
Adjustments can be made as necessary, as well as fining and filtering before bottling. Caramel is used in a number of the inexpensive and mid-priced wines to add colour. By comparison, carbon fining can be used to strip colour. RCGM can be added to increase sweetness if needed, or blending with some drier wine to decrease sweetness.
What styles of Madeira wines are there?
There is a number of defined labelling conventions for Madeira wines, usually based on the grape variety, level of sweetness, length of ageing, and whether the wine is from a single vintage or multiple vintages.
Madeira is made in a variety of sweetness levels, and can hence be labelled with one of the following terms to reflect this; extra dry, dry, medium dry, medium sweet (or medium rich) and sweet (or rich). It must be noted that even wines labelled ‘dry’ demonstrate some degree of sweetness. There is also some overlap between the categories and hence one producer’s ‘dry’ may be another producer’s ‘medium dry’.
Many Madeiras, especially premium priced wines, are varietally labelled. Each grape variety is associated with the following styles of wine:
SERCIAL – extra dry or dry. They tend to be the lightest coloured and bodied of the varietal wines, with notes of citrus peel and nuts.
VERDELHO – medium dry. Verdelho usually has more residual sugar and therefore more
body and a rounder texture than Sercial. The slight sweetness on the palate also gives the impression of sweeter flavours such as candied fruits. It may be slightly darker in colour than Sercial.
BOAL – medium sweet. Boal is fuller and sweeter than Verdelho. It is yet darker in colour, with flavours of caramel, chocolate and candied nuts.
MALVASIA – sweet. Malvasia, also called Malmsey, tends to be full-bodied, and often brown in colour. It is the sweetest style, but still balanced by refreshing high acidity. The wines can show notes of raisins and caramel.
TERRANTEZ – medium dry or medium sweet. Although these wines can have relatively high levels of sugar there is always a delicacy to them. Aromas include citrus peel, caramel and sometimes even floral notes.
TINTA NEGRA – Since 2015, can also be varietally labelled and can be made at any level of sweetness.
For varietal wines, an indication of style e.g. medium dry, does not need to appear on the label. As of 2015, all Madeira must be labelled with a bottling date.
What further Madeira categories are there?
MADEIRA WITH AN INDICATION OF AGE
These are non-vintage products and may be labelled 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50 and ‘more than 50’ years old. The age is an indication of style rather than a minimum or an average. The wine must be verified by IVBAM’s tasting panel, accompanied by an account of all wines used in the final blend. The wines may also be labelled according to style and/or grape variety.
Quality and price tend to rise with increased age. Five-year-old wines will tend to be made predominantly from Tinta Negra and most of the wine will have been through the estufagem system. They are often good to very good in quality and mid-priced. Wines that are 10 years old or older are often made with one of the white varieties, but some producers use Tinta Negra, especially now its name can appear on the label. These wines will be made from parcels that have all been aged in the canteiro system. With increased time spent maturing the oldest wines tend to be increasingly concentrated and complex and have the highest levels of acidity. Wines that are 20 years old or more will often be of outstanding quality and sell at premium and super-premium prices.
STANDARD BLENDS
Many Madeira wines do not qualify for the age indications specified above. These Madeiras may be sold between 2–3 years after harvest and are categorised as corrente by IVBAM. These wines are sometimes labelled with a brand name of the producer, for example, Blandy’s Duke of Clarence, or simply one of the style descriptions, for example, Henriques & Henriques’ Full Rich Madeira.
RAINWATER
This is a wine made in a relatively light style in terms of alcohol, body and concentration of flavours. They are usually around 18% abv, must be medium dry, and can only be associated with a maximum age indication of 10 years. The name is thought to have originated when some casks awaiting shipment were left open outside and the rain diluted the wine.
FRASQUEIRA
Also called Garrafeira. These wines usually represent the flagships of a producer’s range. This is the term for vintage Madeira that has been aged in wood for a minimum of 20 years. The wines must be made from a prescribed grape variety, which must appear on the label together with the year of harvest and the year of bottling. Since 2015 the list of permitted grape varieties has been extended to include Tinta Negra. The quality of the wine must be assessed by IVBAM’s tasting panel. Frasqueira wines typically command super premium prices. The exact style will depend on the grape variety from which they are made however, all of these wines are notable for their concentration and complexity of tertiary flavours, with sweetness balanced by high acidity.
COLHEITA
A Colheita wine is a vintage Madeira, coming from grapes of a single year, that has been aged in wood for a minimum of 5 years. These wines may either include a blend of varieties or be made from a single variety; the grape does not need to appear on the label but the harvest year and year of bottling must be stated. The quality of the wine must be assessed by IVBAM’s tasting panel. This is a relatively new category which only emerged in 2000, but the much lower ageing requirement than required for Frasqueira has made it popular and now all producers make Colheita wines.
Explain the structure of the madeira industry?
Madeira’s vineyard land is highly fragmented, with over 1,000 growers and an average vineyard holding of 0.3 ha.2 The winemaking and maturation side of the industry is extremely consolidated with only eight producers. The largest three companies are Justino’s, Madeira Wine Company and Henriques & Henriques. Only two producers own or rent vineyards (Henriques & Henriques and Madeira Wine Company), which only cover small percentages of each of their production volumes) and therefore all producers buy grapes. A producer will often need to buy grapes from as many as a few hundred growers. To smooth this process, many producers will use agents who will provide consultation for growers during the growing season and coordinate the harvesting.
