M3 and M4 Flashcards
a quantity whose value changes.
variable
a variable whose value is obtained by counting.
discrete variable
variable whose value is obtained by measuring.
Continous variable
from the Latin nomalis, which means “pertaining to names”. It’s another name for a category.
Nominal
Examples:
Gender: Male, Female, Other.
Hair Color: Brown, Black, Blonde, Red, Other.
Nominal
- means in order. Includes “First,” “second” and “ninety ninth.”
- The ordinal scale classifies according to rank.
Ordinal
Examples:
High school class ranking: 1st, 9th, 87th…
Socioeconomic status: poor, middle class, rich
Ordinal
- has values of equal intervals that mean something. For example, a thermometer might have intervals of
ten degrees.
Interval
- exactly the same as the interval scale except that the zero on the scale means: does not exist.
Ratio
Examples:
Age
Weight
Height
Ratio
the study of a population in its static
and dynamic aspects. Static aspects include characteristics such as age, gender and race while dynamic aspect involve fertility and mortality.
Demography
- The study of components of variation and change in demographic variables and the relationships between them.
Demographic Analysis
The study of the relationships between demographic variables and other variables such as social and economic variables.
Population Study
It is a structure based on gender, race or other factors that can be inserted to
Population Composition
Count, ratio, rate, proportion, constant, cohort measure, and period measure.
tools of demography
The absolute number of a population or any demographic event occurring in a specified area in a specified time period.
count
The relation of one population subgroup to the total population or to another subgroup; that is, one subgroup divided by another.
Ratio
The frequency of demographic events in population during a specified time period divided by the population “at risk” of the event occurring during
that time period
rate
The relation of a population subgroup to the entire population; that is, a population subgroup divided by the entire population.
Proportions
An unchanging, arbitrary number by which rates, ratios, or proportions can be multiplied to express these measures in a more understandable fashion.
constant
A statistic that measures events
occurring to a COHORT who are observed through time.
Cohort measure
A statistic that measures events occurring to all or part of a population during one period of time.
Period measure
Formula: # of cases / # of cases
Answer is expressed as “is to 1”
Ratio
= (# of cases / # of total cases) x 100
Answer is expressed in percentage (unless needed to be expressed per person)
Rate
(# of cases / # of total cases) x 100
Expressed in percentage
Proportion
- Census
- Sample registration survey
- Registration of live events
- Institutional records
Sources of Population Data
defined as branch of biometry which deals with data and the law of human mortality, morbidity and demography. These are collected, compiled and then analyse.
Vital statistics
total process of collecting, compiling and publishing demographic, economic and social data pertaining at a specified time or times, to all persons in a country or delimited territory. It has ten years interval
Census
3 types of cencus
- De facto census
- De jure census
- Modern cencus
(in fact, whether by right or not) - the method is to list all persons present in the household or other living quarters at midnight of the census day or all who passed the night there.
De facto census
(by right) - all persons who usually live in the household are listed on the form whether they are present or not. Visitors who have a usual residence elsewhere are excluded from the listing but are counted at their usual residence.
De jure census
each individual is enumerated separately and characteristics of each person are recorded separately. The census covers a precisely defined territory and includes every person present orresiding within its scope. defined reference period. The census is taken at regular intervals
Modern census
These are used when these changes cannot be measured directly, as for example health or nutritional status. If measured sequentially over time they can indicate direction and speed of change and serves to compare different areas and groups of people at the same moment in time
Health Indicators
They should actually measure what they are supposed to measure
Valid
The answers should be the same if measured by different people in similar circumstances.
Reliable
They should be sensitive in the situation concerned
Sensitive
They should reflect changes only in the situation concerned
Specific
They should have the ability to obtain data needed
Feasible
They should contribute to the understanding of the phenomenon
Relevant
- Can be used for perinatal, neonatal, child, materna and other more specific variables.
- Crude death rate, cause-specific death rate, proportionate mortality, death-to-case ratio, neonatal mortality rate, post-neonatal mortality rate, infant mortality rate, maternal mortality rate
Mortality Indicators
e = (# of deaths / Total population) x 100
*Only multiply it by 100 if it is to be expressed in percentage
Mortality Rate
Incidence proportion/attack rate/ risk, secondary attack rate, incidence rate/person time rate, point prevalence, and period prevalence.
Morbidity Indicators
Event type indicator and Person Type Indicator
Disability Rates
No of days of restricted activity, bed disability rate, work/days lost within a specific period
Event Type Indicators
- Limitation of mobility
- Limitation of activity
Person Type Indicator
Low birth weight, under weight (weight for age), stunting (height for age), total goiter age, iodized salt
coverage, vitamin A deficiency, iron deficiency anemia (pregnant women), iron deficiency anemia (pre-school children)
Nutritional Status Indicators
- Healthcare workers per 10,000 patients
- Physicians, nurses, midwives, dentists, pharmacists (and of course medical technologists/clinical laboratory scientists)
Healthcare Delivery Indicators
Actual coverage expressed as the proportion of people in need of a service who actually receive it in a given period, usually a year. Utilization rates give some indication of the care needed by a population, and therefore the health status of the population
Utilization Rates
A relationship exists between utilization of health care services and health needs and status.
Utilization Rates
- Fatigue, sleep impairment, GHQ score.
- General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) consists of 12 items, each assessing the severity of a mental problem over the past few weeks using a 4-point scale (from 0 to 3)
Social and Mental Health Indicators
These Indicators reflect the quality of physical and biological environment in which diseases occur and in which people live.
Environmental Indicators
- These indicators do not directly measure health. These are of importance in interpretation of indicators of health care.
- Urban population (%), % living in formal dwelling, serious crime rate per 100,000, contribution to GDP
(%), unemployment rate (%), gini index (for income inequality)
Socioeconomic Indicators
Policy on: physical environment and ecology; socioeconomic environment; lifestyle, behavior and risk factors; genetic endowment; and health system
Health Policy Indicators
Income and job, housing conditions, health, education, environmental quality, personal security, civic engagement, work-life balance, infrastructure and services, mobility, and culture and leisure.
Quality of Life Indicators
Ratio of the number of cases to the total time the population at risk of the disease; Number of NEW cases in a population per unit time; NEW cases only; Acute conditions; the relevant
information is the Midyear population at risk
Incidence rate
used to measure the frequency or prevalence of a specific health-related or condition within a population during a defined period.
Attack rate/ Incidence Proportion/ Risk
TOTAL number of cases in a population at a given time: ALL cases (OLD + NEW) ; Chronic conditions: the relevant information is the NUMBER of cases at a given time
Prevalence rate
The proportion of persons with a particular conditions who die from that condition (Killing power of the disease)
Case-fatality rate
Total number of deaths during a given time interval
Crude death rate
helps identify the leading cause of death in a population
Cause-specific death rate
Number of deaths from a particular cause/population group in a year, Denominator is Total deaths in a year.
Proportionate mortality rate
it MEASURES the KILLING power of the disease, High CFR means a more fatal disease; A higher CFR is expected from a hospital statistics that that from a community – MUST KNOW
Death-to-case ratio AKA Case fatality rate
Number of deaths among those under 28 days of age in a calendar year, Denominator is Number of live births in the same year multiplied by 1000; Important: Causes of death are mainly due to pre-natal or genetic factors (MUST KNOW)
Neonatal mortality rate
Number of deaths among those 28 days to less than 1 year of age in a calendar year, Denominator is
Number of live births in the same year multiplied by 1000; Influenced mainly by environmental or genetic and nutritional factors as well as infections
Post-neonatal mortality rate
Number of deaths assigned to pregnancy-related causes during a given time interval: denominator is the estimated midpoint population: Affected by maternal health practices, diagnostic ascertainment, completeness of registrations of births.
Maternal mortality rate
- The MOST Sensitive index of assessing health status in the community: High IMR means low of health standards which maybe secondary to poor maternal and child health care, malnutrition, poor environmental sanitation, or deficient health care services.
– Reflects level of health standards related to maternal and child health care, malnutrition, environmental sanitation, health care service
Infant mortality rate
= Deaths under 1 year of age in a calendar year divided by Number of live births in the same year multiplied by 1000
Infant mortality rate
Proportion of an initially disease-free population that develops disease, becomes injured, or dies during a specified period of time, Denominator is number of population at the start of period; Incidence proportion is a measure of risk.
Incidence proportion aka Attack rate aka Risk aka Cumulative incidence aka Probability of getting disease .
it specifically quantifies the the risk of individuals who have been exposed to an index case (the initial infected person) contracting the disease as a result of that exposure; Numerator is the Number of secondary cases (individuals who contracted the disease due to exposure to the index case). Denominator is the Number of individuals exposed to the index case (those at risk of contracting the disease in the same setting)
Secondary attack rate
is calculated by dividing the number of secondary cases by the number of individuals exposed to the index case and then multiplying by 100 to express the result as a percentage. This calculation helps assess the risk of disease transmission within a specific group or setting
secondary attack rate
is often used as a measure of contagiousness.
secondary attack rate
is a measure of incidence that incorporated time directly into the denominator. It describes how quickly a disease occurs in a population; Incidence rates reflect the occurrence of new disease in a population.
Incidence rate aka Person-time rate
Refers to prevalence measured at a particular point in time. It is the proportion of persons with a particular disease or attribute on a particular date
Point prevalence
refers to prevalence measured over an interval of time. It is the proportion of persons with a particular disease or attribute at ANY TIME during the interval.
Period prevalence
refers to the proportion of persons who have a condition at or during a particular period of time; Numerator of prevalence: all cases PRESENT during a given time period; It reflects the presence of a disease in a population.
Prevalence
refers to the proportion or rate of persons who develop a condition during a particular time period; Numerator of incidence: new cases that occurred DURING a given time period; It reflects the occurrence of new disease in a population
Incidence
Factors that INCREASE Prevalence rate
longer disease duration, prolongation of life without cure, increase in incidence, in-migration of cases and susceptible people, out-migration of healthy people, and improved diagnostic facilities.
Factors that DECREASE Prevalence rate
shorter duration of disease, high case of fatality, decrease in incidence, out migration of cases, in-migration of healthy people and improved cure rates.
