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BSC 2085 > M1, S4, Integumentary System > Flashcards

M1, S4, Integumentary System Flashcards

1
Q

A precursor form of which vitamin is produced in the skin?

A

Vitamin D. The skin begins the process of vitamin D synthesis after being triggers by ultraviolet light. The amount of melanin varies by ethnic groups, because the more melanin you produce, the less ultraviolet light you can take in.

This means that in regions where there’s not a lot of light, you want to produce less melanin so you can make more vitamin D. In very sunny regions, you want to protect yourself from harmful UV rays since there will be a lot of htem.

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2
Q

As cells of the outer surface of the epidermis are continually being sloughed off, some cells in the stratum ______ (the bottom layer) of the epidermis divide continuously, replenishing the epidermis.

A

basale

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3
Q

What are the two sub-layers of the dermis?

A
  1. Papillary region

2. Reticular region

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4
Q

The reticular region usually constitutes approximately __% of the dermis.

A

80%

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5
Q

______ helps to protect the skin and underlying tissue from harmful UV radiation

A

Melanin

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6
Q

What are the three pigments that contribute towards skin color?

A

Melanin, carotine, hemoglobin

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7
Q

Carotene is a precursor to vitamin __.

A

A

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8
Q

Which of the following cell types are usually found in the epidermis?

  • keratinocytes
  • melanocytes
  • erythrocytes
  • Langerhans cells
  • T cells
A
  • keratinocytes
  • melanocytes
  • Langerhans cells
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9
Q

Which of the following is the most significant determinant of skin color?

  • location of melanocytes
  • number of melanocytes within the skin
  • amount of pigment that each melanocyte produces
A

-AMOUNT of pigment that each melanocyte produced. Across the entire human species, all humans have approximately the same number of melanocytes.

Melanocytes produce tyrosine, which is an enzyme that converts tyrosine into melanin. When exposed to UV rays, the melanozome organelle within the melanocyte begins to produce melanin.

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10
Q

Cells multiply at the basement membrane and move toward the surface, becoming increasingly __________. As they move away from the nutrients of the dermis, they die and flake away on reaching the surface.

A

keratinized

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11
Q

Approximately 90% of epidermal cells are ___________.

A

keratinocytes.

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12
Q

These cells are part of the immune system and can recognize foreign microbes, engulf and destroy them, and present their antigens to the immune system for further action.

A

Langerhans cells

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13
Q

________ cells are found at the border between the epidermis and the dermal layer. They have small dendrites that protrude in between nearby keratinocytes in the stratum spinosum.

A

Merkel cells

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14
Q

The most superficial layer of the epidermis, consisting of 20-30 layers of dead keratinocytes.

A

Stratum corneum. Its dead cells have lost their organelles and have become keratinized. Glycolipids present in this layer help waterproof the skin and prevent water loss

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15
Q

A single layer of cuboidal-shaped cells on a ______ membrane. This layer contains stem cells, keratinocytes, and melanocytes. It is also sometimes called the stratum germinativum , due to its role in cell germination, i.e., new skin cells are produced at the basal membrane pushing the older cells towards the surface.

A

basal

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16
Q

In which of the following locations is the stratum lucidum found?

  • armpits
  • groin
  • soles of the feet
  • fingertips
  • chin
A
  • soles of the feet

- fingertips

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17
Q

Skin with hair is commonly referred to as ____ skin

A

thin

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18
Q

Hairless skin is often called _____ skin.

A

thick

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19
Q

________ growth factors are associated with the overall regulation of skin growth.

A

Epidermal

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20
Q

_______ strengthens the cells, while ________ adhere the cells to one another and are responsible for the waterproof properties of skin.

A

Keratin, glycolipids

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21
Q

What is the name of the molecule that is produced by lamellar granules in the stratum granulosum?

A

Glycolipid

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22
Q

Which of the following epidermal strata contains the most live cells?

A

Stratum basale

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23
Q

_________ glands produce sebum, an oily secretion that prevents the hair and skin from becoming brittle and dry

A

Sebaceous

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24
Q

What are the two types of sweat glands?

A

Merocrine and apocrine glands

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25
Q

________ perspiration is when sweat is secreted and forms a visible layer, whereas _________ perspiration is when sweat is secreted, but evaporates before a visible layer is formed.

A

Sensible, insensible

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26
Q

_________ are the more abundant of the two types of sweat glands and are found all over the skin.
High concentrations are found on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet.
Opens directly onto the surface of the skin as a sweat pore.

A

Merocrine, Thermoregulation

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27
Q

________ glands are large sweat glands that develop during puberty, and are mainly located in the armpits and anogenital areas.

A

Apocrine

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28
Q

Which gland does NOT contribute to thermoregulation?

A

Apocrine glands

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29
Q

________ glands are modified apocrine sweat glands located deep in the subcutaneous layer of the external ear.

A

Ceruminous

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30
Q

The ____ is an onion-shaped structure deep in the dermis, where cell growth occurs.

A

bulb

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31
Q

Formed by two or three layers of irregularly shaped cells, located in the center of a hair.

Cortex, medulla, cuticle?

A

Medulla

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32
Q

Layers of elongated cells surrounding the medulla, forming a significant part of the hair structure.

Cortex, medulla, cuticle?

A

Cortex

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33
Q

A single layer of thin, flat cells that are heavily keratinized. Each cell partially overlaps the cuticle cell superficial to it, with the exposed edge pointing upwards.

Cortex, medulla, cuticle?

A

Cuticle

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34
Q

Within the bulb is an indentation called the _____, which contains blood vessels and connective areolar tissue.

A

papilla

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35
Q

A germinal layer of cells, called the _____ _____, surrounds the papilla of the hair and gives rise to all cells within a hair, including the internal root sheath.

A

hair matrix

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36
Q

This muscle causes hair to stand on end in what is commonly known as ‘goose bumps’.
This action has a major role in thermoregulation for animals with thick fur, but in humans it of minor importance.

A

Arrector pili muscle

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37
Q

Which of the following substances are found in the bulb of the hair?

  • melanocytes
  • cuticle
  • papilla of the hair
  • hair matrix
  • medulla
A
  • melanocytes
  • papilla of the hair
  • hair matrix
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38
Q

The white, half-moon-shaped area at the proximal end of the nail.

A

Lunule

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39
Q

_________ ________ are egg-shaped, encapsulated masses of dendrites that look like little seedlings coming up from a stalk. Like Pacinian corpuscles, they can sense pressure.

A

Messner’s corpuscle

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40
Q

________ ________ are large oval structures, consisting of a dendrite wrapped in a multilayered, connective tissue capsule.

They are most often found in the dermis, subcutaneous skin layer, and even deeper regions of the body such as the muscles.

They are able to rapidly sense PRESSURE and detect high-frequency vibrations.

A

Pacinian corpuscle

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41
Q

They are flattened, saucer-shaped free nerve endings.. They are slow to adapt and are type I cutaneous mechano-receptors. They are also often found in the fingertips, hands, lips, and external genitals.

A

Merkel disc

42
Q

Besides tactile sensation, thermoreception and proprioception, what is the fourth type of somatic sensation?

A

pain

43
Q

Cold receptors can be found in the stratum _______.

A

basale

44
Q

Warm receptors can be found in the _______.

A

dermis

45
Q

Special pain receptors are called _________. These pain receptors are focused on sensing extreme changes in temperature, physical environment, or mechanical/chemical irritation. Their nerve endings are bare.

A

nociceptors

46
Q

_______ pain is a phenomenon that occurs when pain is felt in a different location to the site of the causative injury.

What causes this type of pain?

A

Referred pain.

This is due to the fact that nerves that connect to viscera and nerves that connect to the skin converge and join together as they enter the central nervous system. The brain deals with pain from the skin more often, and so often falsely interprets visceral pain as cutaneous.

For example, the nerves of T1-T5 receive pain from both the heart and the skin of the left chest and arm,and from here, the neurons follow the same path to the thalamus. Because of this, the brain may become confused about the location of the pain and assume it is coming from the chest and arm, rather than the heart.

47
Q

Which of the following sensory receptors are responsible for the touch sensation?

  • free nerve ending
  • hair root plexus
  • Pacinian corpuscle
  • Merkel disc
  • Messner’s corpuscle
A
  • hair root plexus
  • Merkel disc
  • Messner’s corpuscle
48
Q

T/F: Pacinian corpuscles detect higher-frequency vibrations

A

True.

Meissner’s corpuscles detect lower-frequency vibrations.

49
Q

Which of the following receptors respond to VIBRATION?

  • Merkel discs
  • hair root plexus
  • Pacinian corpuscles
  • Messner’s corpuscles
  • thermoreceptors
A
  • Pacinian corpuscles

- Messner’s corpuscles

50
Q

Epithelial cells produce cationic proteins called _______ which have antimicrobial properties and help prevent the colonization of the skin.

A

defensins

51
Q

_________ is the transfer of heat away from an object via the movement of gases or fluids.

A

Convection

52
Q

Which of the following help the skin to act as a barrier against microbes?

  • glycolipids
  • sweat
  • normal flora
  • melanin
  • defensins
A
  • sweat
  • normal flora
  • defensins
53
Q

What is the name given to the formation of scar tissue during the final phase of deep wound healing?

A

fibrosis

54
Q

Fibrin and blood platelets form a blood clot in the wound to prevent further blood loss and to seal the injury from the external environment. This is known as __________.

A

hemostasis

55
Q

Which one of the following cell types produces scar tissue?

  • reticular cells
  • fibroblasts
  • macrophages
  • adipocytes
  • phagocytes
A

-fibroblasts

56
Q

What are the components and structures found in the integumentary system?

A

Human skin, nails, hair, and sweat glands

57
Q

What functions does the human skin carry out?

A

Vitamin D synthesis, thermoregulation, sensing the environment via cutaneous sensation, secrets waste products, protects our body from fluid loss, stores lipids, and accepts lipid-soluble subsances through the skin.

58
Q

Why is the skin important for thermoregulation?

A

About 80% of the heat that we lose is lost through the skin

59
Q

What sensations arise via the process called cutaneous sensation?

A

Touch, pressure, vibration, tickle, temperature, and pain arise via cutaneous sensation.

60
Q

What are the layers of the skin?

A

The epidermis and dermis. The epidermis lies on top of the dermis.

61
Q

What is the hypodermis?

A

The hypodermis is the region of subcutaneous fat underneath the skin, which is made up of the epidermis and dermis

62
Q

Does the epidermis contain blood vessels?

A

No. It receives nutrients via the capillaries of the dermis.

63
Q

What does the dermis do?

A

The dermis provides elasticity and strength to skin. It also provides nutrients to the epidermis via capillaries. Furthermore, the basis of skin thermoregulation rests in the dermis.

64
Q

What fibers are found in the dermis, and what do they do?

A

The dermis layer of the skin contains collagen and elastic fibers. Collagen gives tensile strength, which allows skin to be resistant to stretching forces. Elastic fibers give recoil properties to the skin.

65
Q

What cells are found in the dermis?

A

It is important to understand that the dermis layer can contain cells that are not found in the epidermis. For example, macrophages, fibroblasts, mast cells, and adipocytes are all found in the dermis. Some cell types form the foundation for epidermal structures such as hair follicles and sweat glands. Furthermore, cells that provide nutrition to the epidermis through the capillary system are also found in the dermis.

66
Q

What are the two sub-layers of the dermis layer of the skin?

A

The sub-layers of the dermis are referred to as regions. what’s in the dermis, there is the Papillary region, and the Reticular region.

67
Q

What is the composition, and what are the components, of the papillary region of the dermis?

A

The papillary region contains areolar connective tissue. the region is defined by protrusions of the dermis into the epidermis. this increases the contact surface area of the dermis. The interior of the dermal protrusions contain the capillary blood vessels that provide nutrients to the epidermis. Furthermore, the papillary region contains tactile receptors. The tactile receptors are called Meissner’s corpuscles.

68
Q

Meissner’s corpuscles

A

Meissner’s corpuscles are the tactile receptors of the papillary region of the non-hairy dermis. Very common in the hands, feet, lips, and external genitalia.

69
Q

What is the composition, and what are the components, of the reticular region of the dermis?

A

The reticular region contains dense connective tissue. This dense connective tissue provides the reticular region with collagen fibers. The collagen fibers, in turn, provide these are impressed with strains.

70
Q

What is the hypodermis?

A

The hypodermis contains fat, blood vessels, and sensory receptors. It is sometimes called the subcutaneous layer.

71
Q

What types of melanin are produced by melanocytes?

A

Pheomelanin and eumelanin. Pheomelanin is pinkish-reddish in color while eumelanin is yellow, brown, or black in color.

72
Q

How does hemoglobin influence skin color?

A

Hemoglobin carries oxygen. When oxygenated, hemoglobin looks red. If you are pale, your epidermis is somewhat translucent because it does not produce as much melanin. Therefore, you look reddish, depending on how much oxygen is contained within your capillaries.

73
Q

How does carotene influence skin color?

A

Carotene is stored in the stratum corneum and fatty areas of the dermis and subcutaneous layers, also called the hypodermis. When you eat a lot of carotene, the skin can look orange.

74
Q

What type of cell in the epidermis produces lamellar granules? Why are lamellar granules important?

A

Keratinocytes. Lamellar granules release water-repellent substances. This helps make the skin water-proof. Coupled with the strong keratin protein that protects the skin, it acts as a very good protective mechanism

75
Q

How do melanocytes and keratinocytes work together?

A

Melanocytes produce melanin which helps the body protect its DNA from harmful UV radiations. “Melanocytes have protrusions that transfer melanin granules to the keratinocytes. These granulessurround the external side of the keratinocyte nucleus thus protecting it from harmful UV radiation”

76
Q

What do Langerhans cells do? Remember, Langerhans cells are found in the epidermis.

A

Langerhans cells are part of the immune system. They are produced by the bone marrow and migrate to the skin. Once in the skin, they act to identify, engulf, and then destroy foreign microbes. They also will present their antigens to the immune system for further action if necessary.

77
Q

What do Merkel cells do? Remember, Merkel cells are found in the epidermis.

A

Merkel cells are called tactile cells because they have a sensory nerve ending, called a merkel (or tactile) disc. When the disc and cell act together, they can act as a slowly-adapting touch receptor. they also have small dendrites that protrude in between nearby keratinocytes

78
Q

What is the stratum lucidum?

A

A layer of the epidermis that only is found in hairless regions ofhte fingertips, palms and soles of the feet. It acts as another layer composed of 3 to 5 sub-layers of flat, dead keratinocytes. It is sandwiched between the statrum corneum and stratum granulosum.

79
Q

What is the stratum granulosum?

A

the second layer of the epidermis (or third ifthe stratum lucidum is present). It contains 3 o 5 layers of mature, but not dead, keratinocytes. These mature keratinocytes produce two types of granules: keratohyalin granules (keratin producing) and lamellar granules. The latter contains water-resistant glycolipids which stick cells together and which are responsible for the waterproof properties of skin. As mature keratinocytes get closer to the stratum their keratin content increases. In addition, they start to die, mainly due to insufficient nutrition as they move further from the capillaries which supply the skin

80
Q

What is the Stratum spinosum?

A

The third to fourth (if the stratum lucidum is present) layer of the epidermis. Eight to ten layers of living, not necessarily mature, keratinocytes. The keratinocytes are joined together by desmosomal connections .Langerhans cells, epidermal dendritic cells, and melanin granules are also present in this layer.

81
Q

What is the stratum basale?

A

The bottom-most layer of the epidermis. A single layer of cuboidal-shaped cells on a basal membrane. This layer contains stem cells,keratinocytes, and melanocytes. It is also sometimes called the stratum germinativum, due to itsrole in cell germination, i.e., new skin cells are produced at the basal membrane pushing the older cellstowards the surface.

82
Q

Although the layers of the skin are basically the same throughout the body (for example, layer Z of the skin in the thigh should look like layer Z of the skin in the bicep), there are differences in the density of glands, hair follicles, and the amount of vascularization in layer Z might vary throughout the body. Pathologists tend to classify the regions of the skin with significant differences into two types: hairy skin and …

A

non-hairy skin

Generally, you can divide the differences in how thick the skin is, how hairy it is, how many glands it has, and how well vascular-ized it is by calling it either hairy skin or non-hairy skin.

83
Q

Nociceptors are pain receptors that are focused on sensing extreme changes in temperature, physical environment, or mechanical/chemical irritation. Their nerve endings are bare.

What type of axons do they have?

A

Fast and slow neurons. Fast neurons are myelinated while slow neurons are unmyelinated. They are found everywhere in the body EXCEPT for the brain.

Fast, myelinated receptors are made out of Type A Delta fiber. Slow, non-myelinaed neurons, are made out of type C fiber.

84
Q

What speeds do nerve signals travel at through fast and slow neurons respectively? Why should you remember these differences?

A

30 meters per second and 2 meters per second, respectively.

It’s important to remember the differences in speeds, because, since slow neurons are so slow, these are the neurons responsible for dull, chronic pain, associated with chronic diseases and post-injury damage.

85
Q

What is a Ruffini corpuscle?

A

A Ruffini corpuscule is a type II cutaneous mechano-receptor. It’s long and encapsulated, kind of like the Pacinian corupscule. However, it is not wrapped by a connective tissue layer. They are often associated with stretching sensations and limb movement. They are also found in the hands and soles of feet.

86
Q

What do free nerve endings look like, and where are they found?

A

Free nerve endings are just simple, bare, dendrites. They have no special structure but they associated with many types of cutaneous sensations. They terminate in the stratum granulosum of the epithelium.

87
Q

What is the hair root plexus?

A

A type of free nerve ending. in this case, the free nerve ending wraps around a hair follicle to form the hair root plexus. When hair is moved, the movement wil stimulate the hair root plexus. Obviously, this is only found in hairy skin.

88
Q

How many types of somatic sensations are there, and what are they called?

A

There are four types of somatic sensations. The four type are called either tactile sensation, thermoreception, pain, or proprioception.

89
Q

What somatic sensations are included in cutaneous somatic sensation?

Why is proprioception not considered a cutaneous somatic sensation?

A

Cutaneous somatic sensation can only detect sensation that come from direct stimulation of the nerves. Therefore, cutaneous somatic sensation can only include tactile senation, thermo-reception, and pain.

Proprioception provides information about the relative position of body parts and movement, conveyed from proprioceptors located within joints, muscles, tendons, and the inner ear.

90
Q

What sensory receptors are responsible for the tactile sensation known as an ‘itch’?

A

An itch is felt when free nerve endings are stimulated by specific chemicals. Bradykinin, a vasodilator produced in local inflammatory responses, can stimulate the free nerve endings and elicit such a response.

91
Q

Tickle sensations arise from free nerve endings cannot be self-induced. What does this suggest?

A

This suggests that neural activity associated with your own body’s movement prevents you from feeling tickled.

92
Q

Cold receptors are considered thermoreceptors, which are made from free nerve endings.

Are cold receptors attached to type A or type C fibers?

What activates, stimulated, or otherwise triggers these receptors?

A

Cold receptors are found in the stratum basale. Most are attached to medium-diameter type A fibers, similar to fast nociceptors. However, some are attached to small-diameter, type C fibers.

93
Q

Warm receptors are considered thermoreceptors, which are made from free nerve endings.

Are warm receptors attached to type A or type C fibers?

What activates, stimulated, or otherwise triggers these receptors?

A

Warm receptors are found in the dermis, connected to small-diameter, unmyelinated C fibers.These receptors are stimulated by temperatures between 90°F (32°C) and 118°F (48°C). Temperatures above 118°F stimulate pain receptors

94
Q

How fast do thermoreceptors act in response to stimuli?

A

They respond quickly, but they can also continue to generate impulses at a lower frequency upon continued stimulation

95
Q

Nociceptors are unusual because they ordinarily only respond to a strong stimulus. Why, and how, do they become hyper-sensitive? Hyper-sensitivity is sometimes referred to as hyper-algesia

A

When tissues become injured or inflamed, they release chemicals such as histamine that cause the nociceptors to become much more sensitive. This means that the affected nociceptors will react to even a mild stimulus

96
Q

What are the defining chracteristics of hairy skin?

A

Hairy skin is called thin skin because in general it is much more thin than non-hairy skin. this is because it hairy skin lacks the strata lucidum layer, and the strata spinosum and statum corneum are very thin

Furthermore, the dermal papilae that "break through" into the dermis are poorly defined, as the dermal layer is only about 1 to 2 mm thick while the epidermal layer is about 0.10 to 0.15 mm thick.

Consequently, because the skin layers are both quite thin, while there will be sebaceous glands, there's not going to be many sudoriferous glands or sensory receptors
97
Q

What are the defining characteristics of non-hairy skin?

A

Non-hairy skin is much thicker than hairy skin, but it does not have much if any hair follicle spots or sebaceous glands. Insteadof these glands, it will have a lot of sudoriferous glands and sensory receptors. In essence, it is the reverse distribution compared to hairy skin.

In non-hairy skin, the epidermal layer is about 0.6 to 1.5 mm thick. The stratum lucidum layer is present, unlike in hairy skin. Furthermore, the straa pinosum and stratum corneum are much thicker. This is why non-hairy skin is often called thick skin.

Thanks to the thickness in the dermal layer, which can be as thick as 33 mm, there's going to be a lot of dermal papillae, organized into parallel rows, and very well defined. This will form a pattern called "epidermal ridges" which look like a bunch of whorling.
98
Q

Within the context of the keratinization process of the skin, explain or describe what happens or what structures are present in the below layers?

  1. ) The Stratum basale?
  2. ) The Stratum spinosum?
A

1.) The Stratum basale: …
This is the deepest layer and the site where new stem cells, keratinocytes, and melanocytes, are created. As they are produced, they push the older, previously-created, cells towards the surface. Cells in the stratum basale are cuboidal and very metabolically active.

2.) The Stratum spinosum: …
Cells in the stratum spinosum form connections via desmosomal connections. Typically, you’re going to see langerhans cells, some epidermal dendritic cells, and melanin granules.

99
Q

Within the context of the keratinization process of the skin, explain or describe what happens or what structures are present in the below layers?
3.) The Stratum granulosum?

A

Keratinocytes mature in the stratum granulosum. Within the granules, the keratinocytes will produce kerato-hyalin granules. These kerato-hyalin granules will product keratin and lamellar granules. Lamellar granules will produce glycolipids.
Keratin strengthens the cells and the glycolipids created by the lamellar granules will adhere the keratinocytes together to the point they provide water-proof properties to the skin.
As they are pushed further and further upwards due to new cell growth in the stratum basale, they become more and more packed with keratin. This causes them to have less room to receive adequate nutrition, and then they will undergo a controlled or programmed cell death. This is often considered a special type of apoptosis.

100
Q

Within the context of the keratinization process of the skin, explain or describe what happens or what structures are present in the below layers?

  1. ) The Stratum lucidum?
  2. ) The Stratum corneum?
A

4.) The Stratum lucidum: …
The statum lucidum contains the keratinocytes that have died in the staum granulosum, which is the layer directly underneath the lucidum. They are clear in color and have thick plasma membranes.

5.) The Stratum corneum: …
This is the outermost layer of the skin. This layer consists of dead, flattened cells that are essentially completely packed with keratin. They receive no more nutrients and fall off your body.

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