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AP B3 > Lower Brain > Flashcards

Lower Brain Flashcards

1
Q

major parts of the brain are

A

Brain stem
Cerebellum
Diencephalon
Cerebrum

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2
Q

Continuous with the spinal cord

A

brain stem

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3
Q

Consists of:
Medulla oblongata
Pons
Midbrain

A

brain stem

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4
Q

Posterior to the brain stem

A

cerebellum

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5
Q

Superior to the brain stem

A

Diencephalon

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6
Q

Comprises mainly:
Thalamus
Hypothalamus

A

Diencephalon

also epithalamus & pineal gland

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7
Q

The cerebrum is supported on the diencephalon and ____

A

brain stem

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8
Q

largest part of the brain

A

cerebrum

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9
Q

The cranial meninges are continuous with the ____ meninges of the same name, and have the same basic structure

A

spinal

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10
Q

meninges

A 
Dura mater (outer) 
Arachnoid mater (middle) 
Pia mater (inner)
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11
Q

cranial dura mater has ____ layers, whereas the spinal dura mater has only one

A

two

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12
Q

An external periosteal layer formed by the ____ covering the internal surface of the cranium

(dura mater)

A

periosteum

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13
Q

An internal meningeal layer that is ___ with the dura mater covering the spinal cord

(dura mater)

A

continuous

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14
Q

The two layers are fused together except where they separate to enclose the ____ that drain blood from the brain into the internal jugular vein

(dura mater)

A

dural venous sinuses

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15
Q

Extensions of the dura mater separate parts of the brain

A

Falx cerebri

Falx cerebelli

Tentorium cerebelli

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16
Q

separates the two hemispheres (sides) of the cerebrum

Extensions of the dura mater

A

Falx cerebri

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17
Q

separates the two hemispheres of the cerebellum

Extensions of the dura mater

A

Falx cerebelli

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18
Q

separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum

Extensions of the dura mater

A

Tentorium cerebelli

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19
Q

Neurons synthesize ATP almost exclusively from

A

glucose

Virtually no glucose is stored in the brain

The brain therefore requires a virtually uninterrupted flow of blood to it, and that blood must have sufficient glucose

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20
Q

A ____ protects brain cells from harmful substances and pathogens by preventing many such substances from entering the brain

The BBB can be broken down or disrupted by trauma, certain toxins, and inflammation

A

blood-brain barrier (BBB)

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21
Q

Lack a BBB

A

pineal gland

pituitary gland

hypothalamus

area postrema of fourth ventricle

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22
Q

The____ (of the fourth ventricle in the medulla) senses toxins in the blood, that the blood-brain barrier protects other parts of the brain from; it controls vomiting

A

area postrema

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23
Q

The BBB is formed by a combination of tight junctions of the endothelial cells of brain capillaries and ___

A

astrocyte foot processes

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24
Q

Some water-soluble substances (such as glucose) cross the BBB by ___

A

active transport

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25
Q

Other substances cross the BBB very slowly: creatinine, urea, ___

A

most ions

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26
Q

Some substances do not cross at all: proteins, most ___ drugs

A

antibiotic

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27
Q

____ substances cross easily: oxygen, CO2, alcohol, most anesthetic agents

A

Lipid-soluble

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28
Q

Protects the brain and spinal cord against chemical and physical injuries

A

CSF

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29
Q

Carries oxygen, glucose, and other needed chemicals from the blood to neurons and neuroglia

A

CSF

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30
Q

Continuously circulates through cavities in the brain and spinal cord, and around the brain and spinal cord in the subarachnoid space (between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater)

A

CSF

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31
Q

are four CSF-filled cavities within the brain

A

Ventricles

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32
Q

The lateral ventricles together comprise the __ ventricle

A

first and second

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33
Q

A thin membrane called the ___ separates the lateral ventricles

A

septum pellucidum

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34
Q

The ___ is a narrow cavity surrounded by the right and left halves of the thalamus

A

third ventricle

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35
Q

The ____ is between the brain stem and the cerebellum

A

fourth ventricle

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36
Q

Mechanical protection, by serving as a shock-absorbing medium that protects the tissue of the brain and spinal cord from physical jolts; CSF also buoys the brain, causing it to “float” in the cranial cavity

A

CSF contribution to homeostasis

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37
Q

Chemical protection, by providing an optimal ionic composition chemical environment for accurate neuronal signaling

A

CSF contribution to homeostasis

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38
Q

Circulation, through acting as a medium for exchange of nutrients and waste products between the blood and nervous tissue

A

CSF contribution to homeostasis

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39
Q

CSF is produced by the ___ in the walls of the ventricles

A

choroid plexuses

These are networks of capillaries covered by ependymal cells that form CSF from blood plasma by filtration (and some secretion)

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40
Q

The ___ are joined by tight junctions, thereby preventing materials from leaking between the cells, and forcing materials that might potentially enter the CSF to be subjected to ependymal cell selectivity

A

ependymal cells

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41
Q

CSF is formed in the choroid plexuses of ___ lateral ventricle

A

each

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42
Q

CSF flows into the third ventricle through two small openings called ___

A

interventricular foramina

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43
Q

The roof of the ___ ventricle produces more CSF

A

third

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44
Q

CSF then flows through the ___ and into the fourth ventricle

A

cerebral aqueduct

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45
Q

A ___ in the fourth ventricle produces more CSF

A

choroid plexus

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46
Q

From the fourth ventricle, CSF enters the ___ through three openings in the roof of the fourth ventricle: a median aperture, and two lateral apertures (a pair—one on each side)

A

subarachnoid space

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47
Q

Since the subarachnoid spaces of the brain and spinal cord are continuous, CSF also enters the spinal ___space

A

subarachnoid

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48
Q

CSF then circulates in the ___ of the spinal cord and the subarachnoid spaces of the brain and spinal cord

A

central canal

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49
Q

CSF is reabsorbed into the blood through arachnoid __, which project into the CSF circulatory spaces

A

villi

It is normally reabsorbed as fast as it is formed, meaning the pressure remains constant

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50
Q

Hydrocephalus (hydro = water, cephalus = head) is a condition in which excess ___ builds up in the brain

A

cerebrospinal fluid

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51
Q

When excess CSF accumulates in the ventricles, CSF pressure rises, causing ___

A

hydrocephalus

If the condition persists the fluid buildup compresses and damages nerve tissue

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52
Q

Hydrocephalus is most often treated with the surgical placement of a ___ system that diverts the flow of CSF from a site within the central nervous system (CNS) to another area of the body where it can be absorbed as part of the circulatory process.

A

shunt

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53
Q

A limited number of patients having OBSTRUCTIVE hydrocephalus can be treated with a procedure called ___. Aided by a neuroscope, a small hole is made in the floor of the __ ventricle, allowing the CSF to bypass the obstruction

A

third ventriculostomy

third

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54
Q

A network of interspersed gray and white matter called the reticular formation extends throughout the

A

brain stem

DUH

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55
Q

called the vital brain because it regulates functions upon which life is most dependent, and which occur without our voluntary action

A

Medulla oblongata

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56
Q

control of breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, and reflex centers for coughing, swallowing, & vomiting that respond without cognitive processing

A

Medulla oblongata

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57
Q

The medulla begins at the ___, and is a continuation of the spinal cord

A

foramen magnum

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58
Q

White matter of the medulla contains all ascending (sensory) and descending (motor) tracts between the ___ and other parts of the brain

A

spinal cord

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59
Q

The ___ of white matter on the anterior where the largest motor tracts pass from the cerebrum to the spinal cord

(brain stem)

A

pyramids are bulges

60
Q

The pyramids represent the ___ tracts

brain stem

A

corticospinal

61
Q

Most of the axons in the left pyramid cross to the right side (___), and vice versa

A

decussate

This is called decussation of pyramids

62
Q

The medulla has several ___ (masses of gray matter where neurons form synapses with one another) that control vital body functions

A

nuclei

63
Q

Cardiovascular center

Medullary rhythmicity area

The deglutition center

gustatory nucleus

Cochlear nuclei

Vestibular nuclei

A

Medullary nuclei

(masses of gray matter where neurons form synapses with one another) that control vital body functions

64
Q

regulates rate and force of the heartbeat and blood vessel diameter

A

Cardiovascular center

65
Q

(part of the respiratory center) adjusts the basic rhythm of breathing

A

Medullary rhythmicity area

66
Q

____of the medulla promotes swallowing of a mass (bolus) of food that has moved from the mouth into the pharynx (throat)

A

deglutition center

67
Q

Other nuclei in the medulla also control…

A

Coughing, which involves a long drawn and deep inhalation followed by a strong exhalation

Hiccupping, caused by spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm

Sneezing, the spasmodic contraction of breathing muscles that forcefully expel air through the nose and mouth

68
Q

The vomiting center ___ of the medulla causes vomiting, the forcible expulsion of the contents of the upper gastrointestinal tract through the mouth

A

(area postrema)

69
Q

comprises part of the ____ pathway from the tongue to the brain, receiving input from taste buds of the tongue

A

gustatory nucleus

gustatory

70
Q

receive auditory input from the cochlea of the ear, and are therefore part of the auditory pathway

A

Cochlear nuclei

71
Q

are components of the equilibrium pathway from the inner ear to the brain, receiving sensory information from vestibular apparatus of the inner ear

A

Vestibular nuclei

72
Q

Lateral to each pyramid is an oval-shaped swelling called an

A

olive

73
Q

inferior olivary nucleus within each olive relays impulses to the cerebellum from the cerebral cortex, red nucleus of the midbrain, and spinal cord proprioceptors ____

A

that monitor joint and muscle position

74
Q

The right and left gracile nucleus and cuneate nucleus are in the ___ part of the medulla

A

posterior

75
Q

right and left gracile nucleus and cuneate nucleus are associated with sensations of touch, conscious proprioception, ___, and ____

A

pressure

vibration

76
Q

First-order sensory neurons having their cell bodies in dorsal roots of the spinal cord ascend in the posterior columns to the posterior nuclei of the medulla

A

Posterior nuclei

77
Q

There they synapse with second-order neurons having their cell bodies in the correspondingly-named posterior nucleus of the medulla

A

Posterior nuclei

78
Q

second-order neurons ascend to the THALAMUS in a band of white matter called the

A

medial lemniscus (lemniscus = ribbon)

79
Q

The medial lemniscus extends through the medulla, pons, and ___

A

midbrain

80
Q

tracts of the posterior columns and axons of the medial lemniscus are collectively known as the _____________

A

posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway

81
Q

A hard blow to the __ of the head or upper neck can be fatal due to damage to the medulla

A

back

Damage to the medullary rhythmicity area is especially serious, and can lead to death

Symptoms of injury to the medulla include paralysis and loss of sensation on the opposite side of the body, and irregularities in breathing or heart rhythm

82
Q

The ___ (=bridge) is superior to the medulla

A

pons

83
Q

Consists of both nuclei, sensory tracts, and motor tracts (like the medulla)

A

pons

84
Q

It is a bridge that connects one part of the brain with another

A

pons

85
Q

Connections provided by the pons between parts of the brain are by bundles of axons, both laterally (connecting the left and right sides of the cerebellum), and vertically (comprising ascending sensory, and descending motor tracts)

A

Pontine structures

86
Q

____ nuclei relay signals for voluntary movements from their origin in the cerebral cortex to the cerebellum

A

Pontine

87
Q

Nuclei comprising the ___ area and ___ area (in the pons) help control breathing, in conjunction with the medullary rhymicity area of the medulla

A

pneumotaxic

apneustic

88
Q

Action of respiratory muscles is controlled by bilateral clusters of neurons in both the medulla oblongata and pons, collectively called the respiratory center and comprising

A

Medullary rhythmicity area

Pneumotaxic area

Apneustic area

89
Q

(in the medulla) controls the basic rhythm of respiration, and consists of the inspiratory area and the expiratory area

A

medullary rhythmicity area

90
Q

When the inspiratory center is active, it generates nerve impulses to the ____ intercostal muscles and the diaphragm, resulting in inspiration

A

external

91
Q

During normal quiet breathing, absence of inspiratory impulses from the inspiratory center relaxes inspiratory muscles, resulting in exhalation due to __ elastic recoil of the lungs and thoracic wall

A

passive

92
Q

___ center neurons are inactive during quiet breathing. During forceful breathing, impulses from the expiratory area are sent to the internal intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles. Contraction of these muscles causes forceful exhalation

A

Expiratory

93
Q

The ___ area turns off the inspiratory area before the lungs become too full

A

pneumotaxic

94
Q

The ___ area prolongs inhalation by sending stimulatory impulses to the inspiratory area

A

apneustic

The pneumotaxic area and the apneustic area coordinate the transition between inhalation and exhalation

95
Q

The vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerve has nuclei in two parts of the ___

A

brain stem, pons and medulla

96
Q

The ___ has sensory axons that end in the vestibular nuclei in the pons (although some enter the cerebellum via the inferior cerebellar peduncle)

A

vestibular branch

97
Q

The ___ has sensory axons that end in nuclei in the medulla oblongata

A

cochlear branch

98
Q

Axons of motor neurons in both branches project from the pons to respective hair cells in the semicircular canals and ___

A

spiral organ

99
Q

Midbrain is also termed the

A

mesencephalon

100
Q

Connects the pons to the diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, etc.)

A

Midbrain

It consists of both nuclei and tracts (like the medulla and pons)

101
Q

pair of tracts containing axons of motor neurons that conduct nerve impulses from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord (corticospinal), medulla (corticobulbar), and pons (corticopontine), as well as axons of sensory neurons that extend from the medulla to the thalamus

A

cerebral peduncles

big tract of descending motor neurons

102
Q

contains two pairs of rounded elevations collectively called the corpora quadrigemina (= quadruplets)

(midbrain)

A

tectum

103
Q

___ passes through the midbrain, connecting the third ventricle above with the fourth ventricle below

A

cerebral aqueduct

104
Q

Comprise the superior colliculi and inferior colliculi

A

Corpora quadrigemina

105
Q

are reflex centers for visual reflexes and for visually tracking moving objects

(Corpora quadrigemina )

A

superior colliculi

106
Q

part of the auditory pathway as well as reflex centers for auditory stimuli

(Corpora quadrigemina )

A

inferior colliculi

107
Q

This is the center responsible for involuntary turning of the head when an object is detected “out of the corner of the eye”

A

Superior colliculi

Provide some of the neural circuitry that contributes to movement of extrinsic eye muscles for tracking moving images. Circuits extend from retina of the eye to superior colliculi, then to extrinsic eye muscles
Various visual reflexes:
Pupillary reflex: adjusts size of the pupil
Accommodation reflex: shape of lens for close and distant viewing

108
Q

Part of the auditory pathway that relays impulses from hearing receptors in the inner ear to the thalamus

A

Inferior colliculi

109
Q

center responsible for the startle reflex, which is the involuntary turning of the head in response to an unexpected sound

A

Inferior colliculi

110
Q

Large darkly pigmented nuclei that release dopamine

Helps control subconscious muscle activities

Loss of these neurons is associated with Parkinson disease

A

Substantia nigra

nucei in midbrain

111
Q

Reddish due to rich blood supply and iron-containing pigment in neuron cell bodies

Axons from cerebellum and cerebral cortex synapse with the red nuclei, functioning in the coordination of muscular movements

A

Red nuclei

112
Q

The rubrospinal tract originates in the red nucleus

The red nucleus controls crawling of babies and swinging of arms in normal walking. It and the rubrospinal tract are primarily involved in control of large muscles of the shoulder and arm, with sparse control over the hands, but not fine control of the fingers which is performed by the corticospinal tract. It does not affect the lower limbs since the rubrospinal tract terminates in the superior thoracic region of the spinal cord

A

red nuclei

midbrain

113
Q

Much of the brainstem consists of small clusters of neuronal cell bodies along with small bundles of myelinated axons

This fairly extensive region of interspersed gray and white matter in the brain stem is termed the

A

reticular formation

114
Q

The main function of neurons that descend from the ____ is to help regulate muscle tone (the slight degree of contraction that occurs in normal resting muscles)

A

reticular formation

115
Q

Part of the reticular formation called the ____ consists of sensory axons that help maintain consciousness and participate in awakening from sleep

A

reticular activating system (RAS)

116
Q

Second-largest part of the brain

But half of the neurons

A

cerebellum

117
Q

The surface has many ridges, or convolutions, called ___ (leaves)

(cerebellum)

A

folia

118
Q

The central constricted area is termed the ___ (worm)

The lateral lobes are the cerebellar hemispheres

A

vermis

119
Q

The cerebellar ___ is gray matter, also exhibiting the foliar ridges

The white matter forms the ___ (tree of life)

A

cortex

arbor vitae

120
Q

____ are bundles of white matter comprising axons that conduct impulses between the cerebellum and other parts of the brain

A

Cerebellar peduncles

There are three pairs of cerebellar peduncles: superior, middle, and inferior

121
Q

CEREBRAL peduncles are ___ structures that conduct nerve impulses from the cerebrum to the spinal cord, medulla, and pons.

CEREBELLAR peduncles are ___ structures that conduct impulses between the cerebellum and other parts of the brain.

A

anterior

posterior

122
Q

The main function of the ____ is to evaluate how well movements initiated by motor areas in the cerebrum are actually being carried out, by comparing what was intended with what is actually being done

A

cerebellum

123
Q

When discrepancies are detected it sends feedback signals to motor areas of the cerebral cortex, thereby providing for smooth, coordinated movement

A

cerebellum

124
Q

___ is also the main region of the brain that regulates posture and balance

A

cerebellum

125
Q

The ____ mediate unconscious refinements of skeletal muscle movements

(cerebellum)

A

anterior and posterior lobes

126
Q

The ____ lobe contributes to equilibrium and balance

cerebellum

A

floculonodular

127
Q

an inability to coordinate muscular movements

A

Ataxia

128
Q

describes a symptom of incoordination associated with cerebellar infections, injuries, diseases, or degenerative changes

A

Ataxia

Speech patterns are abnormal due to uncoordinated speech muscles

129
Q 
Comprises: 
Thalamus 
Hypothalamus 
Epithalamus 
Subthalamus
A

Diencephalon

130
Q

Surrounds the third ventricle

Extends from brain stem to cerebrum

A

Diencephalon

131
Q

Makes up most of the diencephalon

Consists of paired oval masses of gray matter organized into nuclei, plus some white matter tracts

A

Thalamus

132
Q

The two halves (of dienchepalon) are connected across the third ventricle by a bridge of gray matter called the

A

intermediate mass

133
Q

main relay station for most sensory impulses that reach the primary sensory areas of the cerebral cortex from the spinal cord, the brain stem, or the midbrain

A

thalamus

134
Q

sorting out and information editing process occurs wherein impulses having similar functions are grouped together and relayed to the appropriate area of the sensory cortex and cortical association centers

A

thalamus

also contributes to regulation of autonomic activities and maintenance of consciousness

135
Q

a thick band of white matter lateral to the thalamus which separates the thalamus and caudate nucleus from the lentiform nucleus

A

internal capsule

136
Q

small portion of the diencephalon located inferior to the thalamus

controls many body activities, and is a major regulator of homeostasis

A

Hypothalamus

137
Q

serve as relay stations for reflexes related to the sense of smell

A

Mammillary bodies

138
Q

the major structure of concern for the tuberal region

A

infundibulum

It is the stalk that connects the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus

139
Q

main visceral control center of the body, and is one of the major regulators of homeostasis. Few tissues in the body escape its influence

A

hypothalamus

140
Q

has an important involvement with the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland is an endocrine gland that exerts major control over other endocrine glands, so it is the “boss” over much of the endocrine system. The hypothalamus is the “boss” of the pituitary, so in effect it is the “bosses boss.”

A

hypothalamus

Glucose level

Osmotic pressure (osmoreceptors)

Temperature of blood flowing through the hypothalamus

Various hormones (insulin, for example)

141
Q

Control of the autonomic nervous system

Production of hormones

Regulation of emotional and behavioral patterns

Regulation of eating and drinking

Control of body temperature

Regulation of circadian rhythms and states of consciousness

A

Functions of the hypothalamus

142
Q

comprises the habenular nuclei and pineal gland, and is superior and posterior to the thalamus

A

epithalamus

143
Q

are involved in olfaction, especially emotional responses to odors

(Epithalamus)

A

Habenular nuclei

144
Q

secretes the hormone melatonin, and is part of the endocrine system

(Epithalamus)

A

The pineal gland

145
Q

small area containing tracts and the paired subthalamic nuclei, lying immediately below the thalamus

A

subthalamus

It works with other structures of the brain to control body movement

AP B3 (6 decks)

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