LO2 Flashcards
what does the respiratory system consist of?
•larynx
•trachea
•bronchi
•bronchioles
•alveoli
•diaphragm
•intercostal muscles
•pleural membrane
what is the function of the larynx?
connects to the back of the nose and the trachea, forming an air passage to the lungs
allows us to produce vocal sounds
what is the function of the trachea?
known as the windpipe
it starts are the back of the throat (pharynx) and divides into 2 bronchi
has C-shaped rings of cartilage in its structure to prevent it collapsing so that an open air passage is maintained even when lying down
made of bone, cartilage rings joined by ligaments
produces mucus
what is the function of the bronchi?
made of bone to help the trachea stay strong and continue transporting oxygen even when lying down
what is the function of the bronchioles?
branch off the bronchi
to deliver air to a diffuse network of alveoli in the lungs
what is the function of alveoli?
sacs found in clusters at the end of the bronchioles
microscopic
each alveolus is surrounded by a capillary network where gaseous exchange of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide takes place through the alveolar membrane
what is the function of the diaphragm?
thin dome-shaped muscle
anchored to the lower ribs that separate the chest from the abdomen
helps with inspiration and expiration
flattens - inspiration
lifts back into dome shape - expiration
what is the function of the intercostal muscles?
muscles found between ribs
help the diaphragm with expanding and compressing
pull the rib cage upwards and outwards and diaphragm flattens inwards - inspiration
opposite for expiration
what is the function of the pleural membrane?
2 layers of thin membrane that covers the outside of the lungs and lines the inside of the chest wall
film of liquid between layers makes it moist and slippery which lubricates the surface to allow layers to slide over each other and the lungs to move easily within the chest cavity
reduces friction between lungs and chest wall when breathing
what happens during inspiration?
it is a process that required energy
diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract
ribs move up and out
diaphragm flattens
volume in thorax increases and pressure decreases
air rushes into lungs and down pressure gradient
elastic tissue of alveoli stretches
lungs inflate
what happens during expiration?
the diaphragm lifts back into dome shape
intercostal muscles pull the ribcage inwards and downwards.
forces carbon dioxide out of the lungs and they deflate.
What is gaseous exchange?
A process that involves the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between capillaries and alveoli
Structure of alveoli
The walls of the alveoli are very thin (one cell thick) for a shorter diffusion distance of exchanging carbon dioxide and oxygen.
Each alveoli is surrounded by capillaries to make gaseous exchange easier
In groups like bunches of grapes which increases their surface area to allow the maximum diffusion - makes process more efficient
Diffusion gradients
Diffusion is the movement of gas molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
Particles diffuse down a concentration gradient
The capillaries have a lower concentration of oxygen than the alveoli. This means the oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the bloodstream.
What is cellular respiration?
A complex set of chemical reactions and processes that take place in the mitochondria to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into ATP and then release waste products
role of glucose
serves as a primary reactant in aerobic respiration.
role of oxygen
required for aerobic respiration
the electron transport chain takes place in the mitochondria if oxygen is available.
function of ATP
ATP is produced and used to provide energy for cell activities such as muscle contraction.
Aerobic respiration
- requires oxygen
- glycolysis takes place in cytoplasm
- electron transfer chain takes place in the mitochondria
- Pyruvate enters the Krebs Cycle
- Glucose and oxygen react to produce water and carbon dioxide as waste products
- Produces more ATP
Anaerobic respiration
- lack of oxygen needed
- also used glucose
- Produces less ATP
- Converts pyruvate into lactate
- Takes place in cytoplasm
- Lactic acid can build up in muscles and is toxic to the body. Anaerobic respiration only occurs for a short period until oxygen becomes available and lactic acid is then broken down.
*lactic acid is a waste product - occurs in muscles during exercise
*less ATP produced because the pyruvate is converted to lactate
Asthma symptoms
- recurring episodes of breathlessness, tightness of the chest and wheezing
- Asthma attacks - episodes of wheezing that require the use of an inhaler to open the airway
Asthma biological explanation
- Inflammation of the bronchi, which carry air in and out of the lungs, causing the bronchi to be more sensitive than normal
- Contact with allergens, something that irritated the lungs - known as a trigger (eg: cigarette smoke, dust or pollen) - makes airways become narrow, the muscles around them tighten and there is an increase in the production of sticky mucus (phlegm)
Asthma causes
- the exact cause of asthma is not known and is likely to be a combination of factors
- it may be genetic, as it often runs in families and people who have allergies are at higher risk.
- a number of environmental and social factors are thought to play a role in the development of asthma and allergies. These are;
• exposure to tobacco smoke as a child
• triggers such as dust, air pollution and chemical such as chlorine in pools
• being born prematurely or with a low birthweight
Effects of Asthma
- increased risk of lung infections
- may struggle to carry out basic activities e.g walking up/down stairs without feeling breathless
-reduced exercise could lead to obesity/further health issues
Emphysema symptoms
- shortness of breath, wheezing
- yellow mucus
- persistent cough that never seems to go away
- frequent chest infections
- symptoms get worse over time
Emphysema biological explanation
- the airways of the lungs become inflamed and narrowed.
- the alveoli get permanently damaged and it makes it more difficult to breathe out.
-There is no cure but the sooner it is diagnosed and treatment begins, there is less chance of severe lung damage
Emphysema causes
-the lifestyle choice of smoking is the main cause and is thought to be responsible for around 90% of cases
-can be caused by certain types of fumes, dust and chemical exposure at work so have an occupational cause
- can also be a genetic tendency but is rare
- high blood pressure is a risk factor
Emphysema effects
- increased risk of cardiovascular disease
- shortness of breath prevents people from wanting to exercise or carry out strenuous activity
Cystic fibrosis symptoms
-lung problems - recurring chest infections, persistent inflammation of the airways, coughing, wheezing and shortness of breath.
-digestive system - diarrhoea, diabetes and malnutrition because the body struggles to digest and absorb nutrients, jaundice
-may have a serious bowel obstruction in the first few days of life (meconium ileus), which requires an operation to remove the blockage
Cystic fibrosis biological explanation
-the condition is present at birth due to a defect in a gene in chromosome 7 that controls the movement of salt and water in and out of cells in the body. The protein that is produced by the gene causes mucus secreting cells to make a sticky type of mucus instead of a normal runny type. This results in a build up of mucus in the lungs and digestive system.
- as there is no cure, over years the lungs become increasing damaged and may eventually stop working properly. This means people with the condition have a reduced life expectancy.
- most individuals lead fulfilling lives with successful careers, family life and leisure activities
Cystic fibrosis causes
- both parents must have a copy of the faulty gene.
-if only one copy of the faulty gene is inherited, a child will be a carrier but will not have the condition themselves
- sticky mucus build up in lungs
Cystic fibrosis effects
- increased risk of lung infections
-infertility - may have mental impact if individual wanted children
- thickening of other bodily fluids which can result in more health conditions
Respiratory malfunctions: monitoring, treatment and care needs
A variety of techniques can be used to check, test, monitor and treat an individuals lung functions and to diagnose and assess their condition
Spirometry - emphysema and cystic fibrosis monitoring
- This is a test carried out to measure the breathing capacity of the lungs.
- It measures the volume of air expired in total and the force of the expiration in the first second of breathing out.
- It is used to diagnose and monitor a range of lung conditions such as asthma, emphysema and cystic fibrosis.
-The individual has a clip placed on their nose and has to blow into a mouthpiece having inhaled and then repeat this at least 3 times. The test lasts around 30-90 minutes.
MRI and CT scans - detecting emphysema
-These scans can provide high resolution detailed images of the chest and can be repeated over time to monitor changes in the condition.
-A high resolution CT scan is the most sensitive method of detecting emphysema.
Peak flow meters - asthma monitoring
- Used to measure the rate of exhalation.
-For asthma, measurements are taken regularly over time and compared with norms, to indicate dilation/constriction of airways.
treatment for cystic fibrosis
- physiotherapy is used to help restore or improve movement, mobility or function of the body.
-It consists of exercises, manipulation and massage techniques that can be for specific parts of the body or for movement of the whole body, or for lungs and breathing.
-It is used for a wide variety of conditions including emphysema and CF.
-Massage is also used to improve quality of life for those with long term conditions by reducing anxiety levels and improving sleep quality
administration of drugs that alleviate symptoms
care needs of individuals with cystic fibrosis
advice and support in managing and living with their condition
information about how lifestyle changes such as vaccinations and avoiding infections can help
treatment for asthma
-Preventative inhalers (blue) - used regularly to reduce inflammation and sensitivity if airways
- Reliever inhalers (brown) - muscle relaxants for immediate relief of symptoms
Both may be used with a spacer device which gets drugs deeper
Nebulisers may be required if constriction it too great as they get drugs deeper into lungs
lifestyle changes can also be used as treatment - avoid triggers, smoking etc
If asthma is caused by allergens, treatment may involve tests to identify triggers and then de-sensitising injections can be given
care needs of individuals with asthma
advice and support with making lifestyle changes and managing symptoms
Medication
Antibiotics to treat infections
Corticosteroids, steroid treatments to relieve symptoms
Anti-inflammatory medication reduces swelling and inflammation
emphysema treatment
Pulmonary rehabilitation- a special programme of exercise and education
Ambulatory oxygen therapy - the use of portable oxygen when walking or doing other activities
Long-term oxygen therapy - the use of oxygen at home from a portable oxygen tank. Taken through a mask or nasal tubes, used for 16 hours a day
administration of drugs that alleviate symptoms
changes to lifestyle = stop smoking
care needs of individuals with emphysema
advice and support with making lifestyle changes and managing symptoms
Surgery - only if necessary
To remove damaged section of lung or lung transplant
Only suitable when symptoms are not controlled by medication
Effects on lifestyle
- give up smoking
- Well balanced diet to promote maintenance of healthy weight
- may need to move to a one storey house
- avoid pollution and infections/triggers for asthma
-having to move around with an oxygen cylinder to assist breathing
-emotional and social impacts of not being able to complete daily living tasks or go out socially without an oxygen tank. Can lead to depression, stress and anxiety
Care needs - LO2
- regular check ups
- vaccinations (CF) to avoid infection
-dietary supplements
-lack of energy and breathless on any activity
-install a stair lift as cannot walk up stairs
-may need to use a wheelchair
-oxygen cylinder to assist with breathing
-home help for daily living tasks
evaluation of inhalers - asthma, emphysema, cystic fibrosis
general:
+ easy to use
+ portable
+ immediate/fast acting
- can get lost easily
- spacers can be difficult to use
- requires good inspiratory flow
- limited number of uses within a 24 hour period
- collecting prescriptions
- cost of prescriptions
preventers:
+ reduce inflammation
+ for regular use
+ used to stop symptoms occurring
- side effects
- contain steroids
- sore throat
relievers:
+ immediate relief of symptoms
+ relaxes muscles in airway walls
- side effects
- increased heart rate
- shaking
evaluation of drugs taken as tablets or powders - asthma, emphysema, cystic fibrosis
general:
+ stops symptoms occurring
+ can be taken every day
- side effects such as headaches and nausea
- tablets might be difficult to swallow
- collecting prescriptions
- costs of prescriptions
LTRA/Anti-inflammatory:
+ reduces inflammation
+ prevents asthma attacks
+ non-steroid
- side effects such as headaches
steroids
+ immediate treatment
+ can be taken every day
+ long term
- side effects
- increased appetite
- weight gain
- mood change
- high blood pressure
evaluation of de-sensitising injections - asthma, emphysema, cystic fibrosis
+ used for severe asthma
+ triggers are identified
+ control symptoms
+ given every few weeks
- discomfort with needles
- side effects
- not suitable for everyone
- can only be given by asthma specialists
- risk of overdosing
- collecting prescriptions
- costs of prescriptions
evaluation of oxygen therapy - asthma, emphysema, cystic fibrosis
+ improves oxygen levels in blood
+ increases mobility/independence
+ reduce breathlessness
- face mask or nasal tube required
- machine needs transporting with patient
- cylinders need replaced
evaluation of surgery - asthma, emphysema, cystic fibrosis
lung transplant/remove damaged section of lung
+ patients live longer
+ better quality of life
+ higher energy levels
+ work and travel is easier
- surgical risks such as bleeding
- need to take stronger medicines to suppress immune system
- may need further surgery if any issues occurs
