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linguistics > linguistics final > Flashcards

linguistics final Flashcards

1
Q

Research shows that language variation is not _______ or unmotivated

A

random

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2
Q

Old research in language variation thought that personal factors (age, social group, gender, ethnicity/race etc.) _______ and _______ how a person’s language varied

A

predicted and constrained

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3
Q

Newer research in language variation still works to identify factors that can ________ (not cause or constrain) how language varies

A

underlie

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4
Q

Newer research in language variation accounts for _______ ________ and choice in choosing language that is used.

A

speaker intent

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5
Q

New research views language as a tool for communication and for negotiating __________ and _________

A

identity and power

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6
Q

A dialect is a language variety that is _________ ________ but systematically different from other varieties of
the same language

A

mutually intelligible

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7
Q

A one-person language variety is called an

A

idiolect

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8
Q

True or false: dialect and community of practice are the same thing

A

false

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9
Q

community of practice is a more accurate term than “social/ethnic/age/ (etc.) group” or ________ _______

A

dialect group

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10
Q

true or false: Differences in what is ‘polite’ can vary by community of practice

A

true

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11
Q

Politeness is used to mitigate the ________ of all interactions

A

imposition

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12
Q

2 kinds of politeness

A

positive and negative politeness

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13
Q

Type of politeness that acknowledges the imposition

A

negative politeness

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14
Q

type of politeness that makes a hearer feel a sense of closeness and belonging

A

positive politeness

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15
Q

_______ varieties are language or dialect families that are generally considered by a society to be the most “correct” or otherwise superior.

A

Prestige

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16
Q

Prestige you get from indicating you are part of/associated with a group/groups (COP) that value the “prestige” variety of English

A

Overt prestige

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17
Q

Anytime you make a choice to use a non-standard variety to show you are associated with COPs that are non-prestige

A

covert prestige

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18
Q

A soon as an element passes _____ constituent
test, you can stop because it is a phrasal
constituent.

A

one

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18
Q

_______ means part or member of

A

Constituent

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18
Q

________ are constituents of phrases and
phrases are constituents of ___________
(independent clauses).

A

Words, sentences

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18
Q

A clause is made of

A

a np, an optional aux, and a vp

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19
Q

__________ ________ can
join two phrases of the same type

A

coordinating conjunctions

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20
Q

A _________ ________ is a clause that is inside, or
embedded in, another clause.

A

subordinate clause

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21
Q

A functional category (part of speech) that includes words that can be used to turn a clause into the subject or object of a sentence. For example: Mary believes ‘that’ it is raining

A

complementizer

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22
Q

A ________ ______ can be used to show the hierarchy of the sentence

A

tree diagram

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23
Q

a family of expressions that can substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality

A

syntactic category
Example: ‘The child’ found a puppy. ‘A police officer’ found a puppy. ‘Your neighbor’ found a puppy.

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24
Q

verbs such as “have”, and “be”, and modals such as “may”, “can”, “will”, “shall’, and “must”

A

auxiliary

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25
Q

the, a, this, that, those, each, every

A

determiners

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26
Q

The core of every phrase is its _______

A

head

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27
Q

The phrasal category that may occur next to a head and elaborates on the meaning of the head

A

complement

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28
Q

Elements preceding the head in a phrase

A

Specifiers

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29
Q

The form of the sentence before any transformations have been applied to it.

A

deep structure

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30
Q

The form of the sentence after one or more transformations have been applied

A

surface structure

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31
Q

PS rules go to work first and generate a deep structure and then ________ ________ (such as movement rules) move elements in a sentence to form the surface structure.

A

syntactic operations

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32
Q

When the subject of the first clause is the same as the subject in the second clause, we delete the subject in the second clause

A

silent syntax

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33
Q

_________ ________ make words by affixing morphemes to roots

A

Synthetic languages

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34
Q

two kinds of synthetic languages

A

agglutinative and fusional

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35
Q

type of language where there is one meaning or function per root and affix

A

agglutinative

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36
Q

type of language where affixes may have more than one meaning or function

A

fusional

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37
Q

________ languages communicate information by WORD ORDER and PARTICLES.

A

analytic

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38
Q

English is generally considered
to be an _______ language with some
________ properties

A

analytic, synthetic

39
Q

refers to how morphemes
form words that already exist

A

morphological processes

40
Q

refers to how new words
come into the language.

A

WORD CREATION
PROCESSES

41
Q

word for creating completely new words

A

coining

42
Q

Combining two or more independent words that each have a single meaning to form a new meaning

A

compounding

43
Q

Words formed from famous or important people or from brand names that eventually become used as generic

A

eponyms

44
Q

Words that have been created to explain a distinction that was previously unnecessary

A

retronym

45
Q

Words that are combined by taking parts of each word

A

blends

46
Q

Words that begin as one part of speech and are converted to another

A

conversion

47
Q

Words that are formed by using the initial letters of each part of a compound

A

acronym

48
Q

Words that are formed by shortening original words

A

clipping

49
Q

Words that are logically created because it appears that the word should exist

A

backformation

50
Q

Creating a word by doubling a free morpheme or part of a free morpheme

A

reduplication

51
Q

Words that come from other languages–but to us, they are new
words

A

borrowing

52
Q

The relationship between words and
their meanings is __________

A

ARBITRARY (except for onomatopoeias)

53
Q

The theory of word meaning that we examine in this class

A

lexical semantics

54
Q

2 popular ways to look at lexical semantics

A

semantic features and meaning relationships

55
Q

word-level meaning can be decomposed or analyzed into smaller parts of meaning. These smaller parts of meaning are called

A

semantic features

56
Q

Semantic features are
________. That is, for each feature, a word
either has that feature or it hasn’t

A

binary

57
Q

problem with using semantic features to describe things: _______ things can be
tough to describe using features

A

abstract (ex. love, aggression, pity)

58
Q

problem with using semantic features to describe things: semantic features
can’t reflect some types of
__________

A

systematicity (We KNOW that color terms are related—Yellow, Red, Blue–But what features can reflect the difference?)

59
Q

Meaning Relationships are also called
__________ relationships

A

lexical/semantic

60
Q

refers to the systematic relationship between the meanings of the words themselves

A

meaning relationships

61
Q

two or more forms with opposite meanings

A

Antonomy

62
Q

two or more forms with closely related
meanings

A

Synonomy

63
Q

the meaning of one form is included in
another

A

Hyponomy

64
Q

one form with multiple but related meanings

A

Polysemy (A head on a person and a head on a mug of beer. Run (what an athlete does) and run (what colors do))

65
Q

one form has two unrelated meanings.

A

Homonymy

66
Q

2 Subcategories of Homonymy

A

Homophones and Homographs

67
Q

sound the same, not necessarily
spelled the same

A

Homophones (ex. flower and flour)

68
Q

spelled the same, don’t sound
the same

A

homograph (ex. read and read)

69
Q

a part stands for the whole

A

Metonymy (ex. The White House announced today)

70
Q

Change in general meaning associated with the word.

A

Shifts in Connotation

71
Q

4 types of Shifts in Connotation:

A

Narrowing
Broadening
Amelioration
Pejoration

72
Q

Complete shift in definition of word.

A

Shifts in Denotation

73
Q

the process by which the meanings of words become more specific over time

A

Narrowing

74
Q

_________ is the process by which the
meanings of words become more general over time.

A

Broadening

75
Q

The process by which words take on a more positive meaning

A

Amelioration

76
Q

the process by which words take
on a more negative meaning

A

Pejoration

77
Q

Expressing something “figuratively” uses _________ meanings of words. Much of what we say in everyday language is often figurative

A

nonliteral

78
Q

the comparison of two unlike
things. “Something is something else.

A

Metaphors

79
Q

the comparison of two unlike things
using like or as.

A

simile

80
Q

the act of giving human
characteristics to nonhuman things.

A

Personification

81
Q

the description of a sensation
described in terms of another

A

Synesthesia

82
Q

collocations of words and phrases
that have nonliteral meanings

A

Idioms

83
Q

sort of like synonyms but are
nonliteral in nature and are used to avoid
hurting someone’s feelings or used to disguise the actual meaning

A

Euphemism

84
Q

something expressed by an individual that not only presents information but performs an action as well

A

speech act

85
Q

meaning that it is not directly stated but must be true because it logically follows that it is true free of context

A

Entailment

86
Q

_________ are boring and not open to interpretation

A

Entailments

87
Q

Paul Grice called non-entailed meaning
___________

A

“implicature”

88
Q

says that we are supposed say things which further the purposes of the conversation

A

The cooperative principle

89
Q

According to Grice, when you don’t want to communicate implicature (meaning you want to say exactly what you mean and not imply anything), you follow the __________.

A

maxims

90
Q

Grice claimed that implicatures arise from a person not following a maxim because he or she is still trying to be as ______ as possible

A

cooperative (impliature = implied meaning)

91
Q

two main types of writing systems

A

logographic and phonographic

92
Q

a type of writing system in which you write things that look like things or ideas

A

logographic

93
Q

2 types of logographic writing systems

A

pictograms and ideograms

94
Q

writing system in which the shape looks like what it is that you are describing

A

pictograms

95
Q

writing system in which the shape represents things that you need to do or be aware of

A

ideogram

96
Q

each sign represents a phonetic or phonological element with no reference to meaning

A

phonographic

97
Q

Each symbol only represents aspects of consonants

A

segmental (Ex. Arabic)

98
Q

Each symbol only represents syllables

A

syllabic (Ex. Japanese)

99
Q

Each symbol represents a sound

A

Alphabetic (most common in the world)

linguistics (6 decks)

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