LING 110 Ch 4: Alphabet

Question 1

Writing gives us the ability to [______] [______].

Answer 1

Writing gives us the ability to [record] [thoughts].

Question 2

There are two main advantages to writing.

It allows us to [______] the:

1. [______] of [______]
2. [______]

Answer 2

It allows us to [extend] the:

1. [range] of [communication]
2. [memory]

Question 3

Writing extends our range of communication in two ways:

1. [______]
2. [______] [______]

Answer 3

Writing extends our range of communication in:

a. time > it allows for cultural transmission to successive generations
b. geographic range > beyond shouting distance to anywhere someone can travel

Question 4

How many main types of writings systems are there?

Answer 4

4

Question 5

There are four main types of writing systems:

1. [______]
2. [______]
3. [______]
4. [______]

Answer 5

1. [pictographic]
2. [ideographic]
3. [syllabary]
4. [alphabet]

Question 6

A pictographic system of writing uses [______] to represent [______] items.

Answer 6

A pictographic system of writing uses [pictures] to represent [concrete] items.

Question 7

In a pictographic system, the symbols are actual [ ______ ] or [ ______ ] of what they represent.

Answer 7

In a pictographic system, the symbols are actual [ pictures ] or [ drawings ] of what they represent.

Question 8

There are several disadvantages to a purely pictographic systems. These are:

a. it requires [ ______ ] [ ______ ]
b. it is difficult to represent [ ______ ] [ ______ ]
c. it is difficult to [ ______ ] some things from others (give an example)

Answer 8

There are several disadvantages to a purely pictographic systems. These are:

a. it requires [ adequate ] [ artistry ]
b. it is difficult to represent [ abstract ] [ concepts ]
c. it is difficult to [ distinguish ] some things from others (e.g. boy from son)

Question 9

What is a rebus?

What did it enable?

Answer 9

A rebus is a principle that let’s one write the name of one thing by using homophones.

It enabled the natural progression from a purely pictographic writing system to an ideographic one.

Question 10

A rebus is = borrowing the [______] for a [______] object whose name is a [______] for an [______] object.

Answer 10

A rebus = borrowing the [symbol] for a [concrete] object whose name is a [homphone] for an [abstract] object.

e.g. K9, B4

Question 11

An ideographic system of writing represents either a [______] or [______] [______].

Answer 11

An ideographic system of writing represents either a [concrete] or [abstract] [concept].

Question 12

What distinguishes an ideographic system of writing from a pictographic system?

Answer 12

[An ideographic system of writing represents both concrete and abstract concepts while a pictographic only represents concrete concepts, i.e. things that can be drawn.

e.g representing “beauty” in a pictographic system is exceedingly difficult.]

Question 13

Advantages of an ideographic writing system are:

a. [______]
b. [______]
c. [______]

Answer 13

Advantages of an ideographic writing system are:

a. [it allows for greater expression]
b. [it can be understood by speakers of different languages because it doesn’t rely on speech sounds]
c. [it can still be read even if the language has changed so long as the symbols have not]

Question 14

A syllabary represents [______].

Answer 14

A syllabary represents [syllables].

Question 15

When is a syllabary an appropriate writing system?

Answer 15

A syllabary is appropriate only when there are lots of constraints on syllable structure in a language or …

to say it another way, it’s appropriate when there are a limited number of possible syllables.

e.g. Japanese Katagana and Hiragana

Question 16

An alphabet is where (ideally) [______ ______] represents [______ ______].

Answer 16

An alphabet is where (ideally) [one symbol] represents [one sound].

Question 17

The Semitic writing system is not considered a true alphabet because it did not [______ ______].

Answer 17

The Semitic writing system is not considered a true alphabet because it did not [represent vowels].

Question 18

The Semitic system of writing came from the [______ - ______ ______ for ______] in the [______ ______ ______].

Answer 18

The Semitic system of writing came from the [22 - 24 symbols for consonants] in the [Egyptian writing system].

Question 19

A writing system that only contains symbols for consonant sounds is called a [______].

Answer 19

A writing system that only contains symbols for consonant sounds is called a [abjad].

Question 20

Developing an alphabet or a syllabary requires:

a. [______] of [______] [______]
b. agreement on what a [______] is

Answer 20

a. [analysis] of [distincitve] [sounds]

b. [word]

Question 21

Most of the alphabets in existence today descended from the [______] [______].

Answer 21

[Greek] [alphabet]

Question 22

Writing first evolved for [______ ______], that is, to keep track of [______ ______].

Answer 22

Writing first evolved for [economic reasons], that is, to keep track of [business transactions].

Question 23

Business transactions were recorded using [______ ______] of [______] for example.

Answer 23

Business transactions were recorded using [clay figurines] of [animals] for example.

Question 24

Eventually, to keep things honest, this evolved into firing these [______] into [______ ______].

Breaking the envelope to verify contents voided the transaction if done before it was time. This led to [______], a system of [______] that were pressed onto the outside of the [______] to indicate contents.

[______] is an [______] system of writing.

Answer 24

Eventually, to keep things honest, this evolved into firing these [figurines] into [clay envelopes].

Breaking the envelope to verify contents voided the transaction if done before it was time. This led to [cuneiform], a system of [wedges] that were pressed onto the outside of the [envelopes] to indicate contents.

[Cuneiform] is an ideographic system of writing.

Question 25

Symbols came to represent sounds via the [______ ______].

Answer 25

Symbols came to represent sounds via the [rebus principle].

Question 26

A determinative is a [______ ______] used to indicate whether a [______] should be interpreted as a [______ or a [______].

Answer 26

A determinative is a [secondary symbol] used to indicate whether a [symbol] should be interpreted as a [sound or a symbol].

Question 27

Why did determinatives evolve?

Answer 27

Because the Egyptians had begun to interpret hieroglyphs using the rebus principle so they needed a secondary symbol to indicate if the symbol represented a sound or a symbol.

Question 28

The hieroglyphic system eventually came to contain:

a. a large set of [______] for [______] and [______]
b. symbols for [______] and [______]
c. [______] to [______] symbols for [______]

Answer 28

a. a large set of [symbols] for [ideas] + [objects]
b. symbols for [sounds] + [determinatives]
c. [22] to [24] symbols for [consonants]

Question 29

Who borrowed the consonants from the Egyptian hieroglyphic system and when?

Answer 29

a. the Semites borrowed the consonants

b. around 1700 BCE.

Question 30

What did they do with these consonants and what did it enable?

Answer 30

a. they numbered and ordered them

b. which enabled literacy to increase

Question 31

How did this system make it to Greece?

Answer 31

a. the Phoenicians established a trading network which brought it to Greece.

Question 32

When did the Greeks adopt this writing system?

Answer 32

around 1000 BCE

Question 33

As far as the Greeks were concerned, the writing system needed modification because it lacked symbols for [______].

Answer 33

[vowels]

Question 34

How did they deal with this?

Answer 34

Not all of the symbols were needed in Greek as some of the consonant sounds did not exist in Greek so they adapted the unused symbols and used them to represent vowels.

Question 35

The Semitic name for A is [______].

Answer 35

alef

Question 36

“Alef” means [______].

Answer 36

[ox]

Question 37

The Greek name for the letter A is [______].

Answer 37

[alpha]

Question 38

The Semitic name for the letter B is [______] and it represents a [______].

Answer 38

[beth] and it represents a [house]

Question 39

The Greek name for the letter B is [______].

Answer 39

[beta]

Question 40

The Semitic name for the letter D is [______].

Answer 40

[daleth]

Question 41

The Greek name for the letter D is [______].

Answer 41

[delta]

Question 42

The Semitic name for the letter L is [______].

Answer 42

[lamed]

Question 43

The Greek name for the letter L is [______].

Answer 43

[lambda]

Question 44

The Semitic name for the letter M is [______].

Answer 44

[minyan]

Question 45

The Greek name for the letter M is [______].

Answer 45

[mu]

Question 46

The Greek name for the letter K is [______].

Answer 46

[kappa]

Question 47

What is noteworthy about K (kappa)?

Answer 47

It symbolized “hand” and was written in the opposite direction but when the writing system was fixed it took the current orientation.

Question 48

The writing style of the Greeks was right to left and then left to right and so on. This is called [______] and it means…[______…]

Answer 48

[boustrophedon] and it means [as the ox ploughs]

Question 49

The Greeks did not use spacing when writing but did use punctuation.

a. True
b. False

Answer 49

b. False

The Greeks used neither spacing nor punctuation.

Question 50

All of the letters used by the Greeks have survived into English.

a. True
b. False

Answer 50

b. False

Some have not survived, e.g. “psi” the initial sequence of sounds in “psychology”.

NB: some letters were repurposed. Zeta [z] was originally the sixth letter of the Greek alphabet.

Question 51

Describe the chain of borrowing the led to the Romans having an alphabet.

Answer 51

Greek alphabet > Estruscans

Estruscan alphabet > Romans

Question 52

The Estruscans did not have a voiced velar stop [] and so did not need [______] / [] and dropped it.

Answer 52

… voiced velar stop [g] and so did not need [gamma] / [g] and dropped it.

Question 53

When the Romans borrowed the alphabet from the Estruscans they needed gamma / [] but did not need [______] / [] because this sound did not exist in Latin.

Answer 53

… they needed [gamma] / [g] but did not need [zeta] / [z] because this sound did not exist in Latin.

Question 54

The Romans adapted zeta (Z) into the letter [______] which stood for the voiced velar stop [_].

Answer 54

[G]

Question 55

Latin had two [k] sounds. One was represented by the letter [] and the other by the letter [].

Answer 55

Latin had two [k] sounds. One was represented by the letter [C] and the other by the letter [Q].

Question 56

The letter C represented [_] in the IPA.

Answer 56

The letter C represented [k] in the IPA.

Question 57

The other [k] sound represented by the letter [______] and represented [__]. This sound was produced with [______ ______] which explains why in English we often see this letter followed by the letter [______].

Answer 57

The other [k] sound represented by the letter [koppa] and represented [Q]. This sound was produced with [rounded lips] which explains why in English we often see this letter followed by the letter [U].

Question 58

The letter Q was called [______] and had been dropped by the [______] but not before the [______] borrowed it.

It also represented [k] and it differed from C in that it was produced with [______ ______].

Answer 58

The letter Q was called [koppa] and had been dropped by the [Greeks] but not before the [Etruscans] borrowed it.

It also represented [k] and it differed from C in that it was produced with [lip rounding].

Question 59

123

Answer 59

123

Question 60

NB: “gamma” in Greek was the letter [_] and was a voiced velar stop.

The Romans rotated it to create the letter [] which represented the sound [].

Answer 60

NB: “gamma” in Greek was the letter [G].

The Romans rotated it to create the letter [C] which represented the sound [k].

Question 61

The phonetic description of C in Roman is [______] [______] [______] and is represented by the IPA symbol [_].

Answer 61

[voiceless] [velar] [stop]

[k]

Question 62

The Greek name for the letter H was [______].

Answer 62

[eta]

Question 63

“eta” (H) in Greek represented a [______] and not a [______].

Answer 63

[vowel] not a [consonant]

Question 64

“xi” (small cap I on it’s side) in Greek becomes [_] in the Roman alphabet and it represents the sound combination of [__].

Answer 64

“xi” in Greek becomes [X] in the Roman alphabet and it represents the sound combination of [ks].

Question 65

We look at three cases in this course, they are:

1. [______]
2. [______]
3. [______]

Answer 65

1. [nominative]
2. [accusative]
3. [genitive]

Question 66

The nominative case denotes the [______] of a [______].

Answer 66

[subject] of a [verb].

Question 67

The accusative case denotes the [______] of a [______].

Answer 67

[object] of a [verb]

Question 68

The genitive case denotes the [______].

Answer 68

[possession]

Question 69

The Latin suffix for inflecting the nomintive case is -[______].

Answer 69

[-s]

Question 70

The Latin suffix for inflecting the accusative case is -[______].

Answer 70

[-em]

Question 71

The Latin suffix for inflecting the genitive case is -[______].

Answer 71

[-is]

Question 72

When a Latin root ending in the letter C is inflected for the nominative case, the letters C + S become the letter [_].

Answer 72

When a Latin root ending in the letter C is inflected for the nominative case, the letters C + S become the letter [X].

Question 73

The two example of roots given in the text around Latin case inflection are [______] and [______].

Answer 73

[duc] and [urb]

Question 74

“duc” is a Latin root from [______] which means [______].

Answer 74

[ducere] which means [to lead]

Question 75

“urb” is a Latin root which means [______].

Answer 75

[city]

Question 76

The use of X to represent [__] came into English along with Latin words.

Give an example.

Answer 76

[ks]

e.g. matrix

Question 77

The use of X to represent both [__] and [_] came into English along with words or Greek origin.

Give examples.

Answer 77

The use of X to represent both [ks] and [z] came into English along with words or Greek origin.

e.g. exodus [ks], xylophone [z] or xenophobia [z]

Question 78

Double-duty letters:

U in Latin represented both the sounds [] and []. These sounds were in [______] [______], i.e. whenever one appeared, the other did not and vice versa.

Answer 78

[u] and [w]

These sounds were in [complementary] [distribution].

Question 79

In Latin U before a vowel was pronounced [] and U everywhere else was [].

Answer 79

In Latin U before a vowel was pronounced [w] and everywhere else it was [u].

e.g. uiuu [wiwu] from which we derive “vivacious”

Question 80

I in Latin represented both the sounds [] and []. These sounds were in [______] [______].

Answer 80

I in Latin represented both [i] and [j]. These sounds were in [complementary] [distribution].

Question 81

In Latin the sound [j] appeared before [______] and [_] appeared everywhere else.

Answer 81

In Latin the sound [j] appeared before [vowels] and [i] appeared everywhere else.

Question 82

As Late Latin changed and adopting languages needed sounds the letter [] was re-adopted as the [______] letter to [______] [] from [_].

Answer 82

As Late Latin changed and adopting languages needed sounds the letter [Z] was re-adopted as the [final] letter to [distinguish] [z] from [s].

Question 83

The letter Y was adapted from the Greek letter called [______] and was used in Late Latin when [______] words from [______] such as …. [______] and [______].

Answer 83

The letter Y was adapted from the Greek letter called [upsilon] and was used in Late Latin when [transliterating] words from [Greek] such as …. [symphony] and [chrysanthemum].

Question 84

When we see Y word internally we can often guess that the origin of the word is [______]… as long as it is not a [______ ______].

Answer 84

When we see Y word internally we can often guess that the origin of the word is [Greek]… as long as it is not a [compound word].

Question 85

The letter Y in English:

The letter Y was added to the [______ ______] alphabet in [______]. The English innovation was to use Y to represent a [______]. An example of this is found in the word [______] or [______].

Answer 85

The letter Y was added to the [Late Latin] alphabet in [50 BCE]. The English innovation was to use Y to represent a [consonant]. An example of this is found in the word [playing] or [youth].

Question 86

The letter J in Romance languages:

The letter J was added to Romance languages. This letter was invented by [______] the letter [] and it was used to [______] the letter [].

Answer 86

The letter J was added to Romance languages. This letter was invented by [elongating] the letter [I] and it was used to [replace] the letter [Y].

Question 87

The letters Y and J then are [______] that can be used to identify the language family of origin except in [______] words like [______] and [______] which demonstrate that this [______] is not perfect.

Answer 87

The letters Y and J then are [shibboleths] that can be used to identify the language family of origin, except in [French] words like [royal] and [loyal] which demonstrate that this [rule] is not perfect.

Question 88

A shibboleth is…

Answer 88

… use of language regarded as distinctive of a particular group.

Question 89

The relationship between I and Y in English is very close. This is demonstrated by two mains observations:

1. [______] [______]
2. [______] [______]

Answer 89

The relationship between I and Y in English is very close. This is demonstrated by two mains observations:

1. [dialectical] [differences]
2. [frequent] [alternation]

Question 90

Example of dialectical differences showing the close relationship of I and Y in English are:

a. [______…]

Answer 90

1. [dialectical] [differences]
   a. British/American spelling oftyre/tire

Question 91

Examples of frequent alternation of I and Y in CE spelling are:

a. [______…]
b. [______…]

Answer 91

2. frequent alternation
   a. many adjectives ending in -ly and -y can be nominalized (made into nouns) with the suffix -ness in which Y changes to I.

b. historical spelling as exemplified by Chaucer
eyre/aire

Question 92

Why can’t words in English end in I?

Answer 92

… at some point it was just decided so words took Y at the end unless they were borrowed directly, e.g. a priori

Question 93

The rule governing the use of Y in English is that English uses Y to represent [______ and ______] only [______-______ or ______] when the next character is [_] or when it is preceded by a [______].

Answer 93

The rule governing the use of Y in English is that English uses Y to represent [vowels and diphthongs] only [word-finally or internally] when the next character is [I] or when it is preceded by a [vowel].

Question 94

Spelling rules (and rules in general) are [______ ______].

NB: the rule re Y in English does not hold for words of [______] origin or for English [______].

Answer 94

Spelling rules (and rules in general) are [language specific].

NB: the rule re Y in English does not hold for words of [Greek] origin or for English [compounds].

Question 95

The Romans had 2 Us. The U was used when writing by [______] and it’s alternate writing [_] was used when [______ on ______].

Answer 95

The Romans had 2 Us. The U was used when writing by [hand] and it’s alternate writing [V] was used when [carving on stele].

Question 96

The Y in [______, ______ and ______] is considered a consonant.

Answer 96

The Y in [youth, year and young] is considered a consonant.

Question 97

“i” can represent the sounds [], [__] or [] (in Greek).

Answer 97

“i” can represent the sounds [i], [ay] or [ü] (in Greek).

Question 98

So, to recap, U in Latin sometimes represented [] and sometimes [].

Answer 98

So, to recap, U in Latin sometimes represented [u] and sometimes [w].

Question 99

recap… the Romans had two Us, one [______-______] and and alternate when [______].

Answer 99

recap… the Romans had two Us, one [hand-written] and and alternate when [carved].

Question 100

The Romance languages took [] and assigned it to the sound [].

Answer 100

The Romance languages took [V] and assigned it to the sound [v].

Question 101

English created the letter [] to distinguish between [] and [_].

Answer 101

English created the letter [W] to distinguish between [u] and [w].

Question 102

In Romance languages, [] shows up often in cognates where in English [] shows up.

Answer 102

In Romance languages, [v] shows up often in cognates where in English [w] shows up.

Question 103

Latin V/J and Enlish W/Y words:
vegetable
revolve
value
vibrate
juvenile
January
jaundice
jugular

Answer 103

Latin V/J and Enlish W/Y words:
wake
walk
wield
whip
young
year
yellow
yoke

Question 104

The fact that the Latin system of vowels is inadequate for many languages led to two developments:

1. In English, the use of [______ of ______] and the [_____ _]
2. The use of [______] in other languages such as the [______] in German for instance

Answer 104

The fact that the Latin system of vowels is inadequate for many languages led to two developments:

1. In English, the use of [combinations of vowels] and the [silent e]
2. The use of [diacritics] in other languages such as the [umlaut] in German for instance

Question 105

As language changes, new sounds are represented through:

1. [______] previously mentioned
2. [______]

Answer 105

As language changes, new sounds are represented through:

1. [diacritics] previously mentioned
2. [digraphs]

Question 106

The words “church” CE and “kirche” are cognates. Separate from the GCS, we see here that English at one point had a rule that changed [] > [].

Answer 106

The words “church” CE and “kirche” are cognates. Separate from the GCS, we see here that English at one point had a rule that changed [k] > [“ch” t|].

Question 107

Spelling rules such as the “silent e” are attempts to [______] phonological (sound change theory) rules.

Answer 107

Spelling rules such as the “silent e” are attempts to [mimic] phonological (sound change theory) rules.

Question 108

Syllables can [______] with a [______ or ______].

Syllables can [______] with a [______ or ______].

Answer 108

Syllables can [begin] with a [vowel or consonant]. e.g.: at or bat

Syllables can [end] with a [vowel or consonant]. e.g.: see or set

Question 109

Permissible syllable structures are:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Answer 109

Permissible syllable structures are:

1. V e.g.: a
2. VC e.g.: at
3. CV e.g.: co
4. CVC e.g.: cot

Question 110

The sequence VCV is divided …

Answer 110

The sequence VCV is divided V | CV.

Question 111

The sequence VCCV is divided …

Answer 111

The sequence VCCV is divided VC | CV.

Question 112

Languages that have [______] rules require a notion of what a [______] is.

Answer 112

Languages that have [stress] rules require a notion of what a [syllable] is.

Question 113

Syllables ending in a vowel are [______] and [______] e.g.:

Answer 113

Syllables ending in a vowel are [open] and [long] e.g.: my, see, bate [ba | te]

Question 114

Syllables ending in a consonant are [______] and [______] e.g.:

Answer 114

Syllables ending in a consonant are [closed] and [short] e.g.: bat

Question 115

These rules allowed syllable structure to [______] and [______] vowel length.

Answer 115

These rules allowed syllable structure to [govern] and [predict] vowel length.

Question 116

Prior to this, long vowels were represented by [______ the ______].

This is frozen in the language with words like: …

Answer 116

Prior to this, long vowels were represented by [doubling the vowel].

This is frozen in the language with words like: … beet, seek, meet, keep

Question 117

Once vowel length was predicted by [______ ______] we had another option.

Answer 117

Once vowel length was predicted by [syllable structure] we had another option.

Question 118

One trick used to create an orthographic closed syllable is [______ the ______].

Answer 118

One trick used to create an orthographic closed syllable is [doubling the consonant].