LING 110 Ch 4: Alphabet Flashcards
Writing gives us the ability to [______] [______].
Writing gives us the ability to [record] [thoughts].
There are two main advantages to writing.
It allows us to [______] the:
- [______] of [______]
- [______]
It allows us to [extend] the:
- [range] of [communication]
- [memory]
Writing extends our range of communication in two ways:
- [______]
- [______] [______]
Writing extends our range of communication in:
a. time > it allows for cultural transmission to successive generations
b. geographic range > beyond shouting distance to anywhere someone can travel
How many main types of writings systems are there?
4
There are four main types of writing systems:
- [______]
- [______]
- [______]
- [______]
- [pictographic]
- [ideographic]
- [syllabary]
- [alphabet]
A pictographic system of writing uses [______] to represent [______] items.
A pictographic system of writing uses [pictures] to represent [concrete] items.
In a pictographic system, the symbols are actual [ ______ ] or [ ______ ] of what they represent.
In a pictographic system, the symbols are actual [ pictures ] or [ drawings ] of what they represent.
There are several disadvantages to a purely pictographic systems. These are:
a. it requires [ ______ ] [ ______ ]
b. it is difficult to represent [ ______ ] [ ______ ]
c. it is difficult to [ ______ ] some things from others (give an example)
There are several disadvantages to a purely pictographic systems. These are:
a. it requires [ adequate ] [ artistry ]
b. it is difficult to represent [ abstract ] [ concepts ]
c. it is difficult to [ distinguish ] some things from others (e.g. boy from son)
What is a rebus?
What did it enable?
A rebus is a principle that let’s one write the name of one thing by using homophones.
It enabled the natural progression from a purely pictographic writing system to an ideographic one.
A rebus is = borrowing the [______] for a [______] object whose name is a [______] for an [______] object.
A rebus = borrowing the [symbol] for a [concrete] object whose name is a [homphone] for an [abstract] object.
e.g. K9, B4
An ideographic system of writing represents either a [______] or [______] [______].
An ideographic system of writing represents either a [concrete] or [abstract] [concept].
What distinguishes an ideographic system of writing from a pictographic system?
[An ideographic system of writing represents both concrete and abstract concepts while a pictographic only represents concrete concepts, i.e. things that can be drawn.
e.g representing “beauty” in a pictographic system is exceedingly difficult.]
Advantages of an ideographic writing system are:
a. [______]
b. [______]
c. [______]
Advantages of an ideographic writing system are:
a. [it allows for greater expression]
b. [it can be understood by speakers of different languages because it doesn’t rely on speech sounds]
c. [it can still be read even if the language has changed so long as the symbols have not]
A syllabary represents [______].
A syllabary represents [syllables].
When is a syllabary an appropriate writing system?
A syllabary is appropriate only when there are lots of constraints on syllable structure in a language or …
to say it another way, it’s appropriate when there are a limited number of possible syllables.
e.g. Japanese Katagana and Hiragana
An alphabet is where (ideally) [______ ______] represents [______ ______].
An alphabet is where (ideally) [one symbol] represents [one sound].
The Semitic writing system is not considered a true alphabet because it did not [______ ______].
The Semitic writing system is not considered a true alphabet because it did not [represent vowels].
The Semitic system of writing came from the [______ - ______ ______ for ______] in the [______ ______ ______].
The Semitic system of writing came from the [22 - 24 symbols for consonants] in the [Egyptian writing system].
A writing system that only contains symbols for consonant sounds is called a [______].
A writing system that only contains symbols for consonant sounds is called a [abjad].
Developing an alphabet or a syllabary requires:
a. [______] of [______] [______]
b. agreement on what a [______] is
a. [analysis] of [distincitve] [sounds]
b. [word]
Most of the alphabets in existence today descended from the [______] [______].
[Greek] [alphabet]
Writing first evolved for [______ ______], that is, to keep track of [______ ______].
Writing first evolved for [economic reasons], that is, to keep track of [business transactions].
Business transactions were recorded using [______ ______] of [______] for example.
Business transactions were recorded using [clay figurines] of [animals] for example.
Eventually, to keep things honest, this evolved into firing these [______] into [______ ______].
Breaking the envelope to verify contents voided the transaction if done before it was time. This led to [______], a system of [______] that were pressed onto the outside of the [______] to indicate contents.
[______] is an [______] system of writing.
Eventually, to keep things honest, this evolved into firing these [figurines] into [clay envelopes].
Breaking the envelope to verify contents voided the transaction if done before it was time. This led to [cuneiform], a system of [wedges] that were pressed onto the outside of the [envelopes] to indicate contents.
[Cuneiform] is an ideographic system of writing.
Symbols came to represent sounds via the [______ ______].
Symbols came to represent sounds via the [rebus principle].
A determinative is a [______ ______] used to indicate whether a [______] should be interpreted as a [______ or a [______].
A determinative is a [secondary symbol] used to indicate whether a [symbol] should be interpreted as a [sound or a symbol].
Why did determinatives evolve?
Because the Egyptians had begun to interpret hieroglyphs using the rebus principle so they needed a secondary symbol to indicate if the symbol represented a sound or a symbol.
The hieroglyphic system eventually came to contain:
a. a large set of [______] for [______] and [______]
b. symbols for [______] and [______]
c. [______] to [______] symbols for [______]
a. a large set of [symbols] for [ideas] + [objects]
b. symbols for [sounds] + [determinatives]
c. [22] to [24] symbols for [consonants]
Who borrowed the consonants from the Egyptian hieroglyphic system and when?
a. the Semites borrowed the consonants
b. around 1700 BCE.
What did they do with these consonants and what did it enable?
a. they numbered and ordered them
b. which enabled literacy to increase
How did this system make it to Greece?
a. the Phoenicians established a trading network which brought it to Greece.
When did the Greeks adopt this writing system?
around 1000 BCE
As far as the Greeks were concerned, the writing system needed modification because it lacked symbols for [______].
[vowels]
How did they deal with this?
Not all of the symbols were needed in Greek as some of the consonant sounds did not exist in Greek so they adapted the unused symbols and used them to represent vowels.
The Semitic name for A is [______].
alef
“Alef” means [______].
[ox]
The Greek name for the letter A is [______].
[alpha]
The Semitic name for the letter B is [______] and it represents a [______].
[beth] and it represents a [house]
The Greek name for the letter B is [______].
[beta]
The Semitic name for the letter D is [______].
[daleth]
The Greek name for the letter D is [______].
[delta]
The Semitic name for the letter L is [______].
[lamed]
The Greek name for the letter L is [______].
[lambda]
The Semitic name for the letter M is [______].
[minyan]
The Greek name for the letter M is [______].
[mu]
The Greek name for the letter K is [______].
[kappa]
What is noteworthy about K (kappa)?
It symbolized “hand” and was written in the opposite direction but when the writing system was fixed it took the current orientation.
The writing style of the Greeks was right to left and then left to right and so on. This is called [______] and it means…[______…]
[boustrophedon] and it means [as the ox ploughs]
The Greeks did not use spacing when writing but did use punctuation.
a. True
b. False
b. False
The Greeks used neither spacing nor punctuation.
All of the letters used by the Greeks have survived into English.
a. True
b. False
b. False
Some have not survived, e.g. “psi” the initial sequence of sounds in “psychology”.
NB: some letters were repurposed. Zeta [z] was originally the sixth letter of the Greek alphabet.
Describe the chain of borrowing the led to the Romans having an alphabet.
Greek alphabet > Estruscans
Estruscan alphabet > Romans
The Estruscans did not have a voiced velar stop [] and so did not need [______] / [] and dropped it.
… voiced velar stop [g] and so did not need [gamma] / [g] and dropped it.
When the Romans borrowed the alphabet from the Estruscans they needed gamma / [] but did not need [______] / [] because this sound did not exist in Latin.
… they needed [gamma] / [g] but did not need [zeta] / [z] because this sound did not exist in Latin.
The Romans adapted zeta (Z) into the letter [______] which stood for the voiced velar stop [_].
[G]
Latin had two [k] sounds. One was represented by the letter [] and the other by the letter [].
Latin had two [k] sounds. One was represented by the letter [C] and the other by the letter [Q].
The letter C represented [_] in the IPA.
The letter C represented [k] in the IPA.
The other [k] sound represented by the letter [______] and represented [__]. This sound was produced with [______ ______] which explains why in English we often see this letter followed by the letter [______].
The other [k] sound represented by the letter [koppa] and represented [Q]. This sound was produced with [rounded lips] which explains why in English we often see this letter followed by the letter [U].
The letter Q was called [______] and had been dropped by the [______] but not before the [______] borrowed it.
It also represented [k] and it differed from C in that it was produced with [______ ______].
The letter Q was called [koppa] and had been dropped by the [Greeks] but not before the [Etruscans] borrowed it.
It also represented [k] and it differed from C in that it was produced with [lip rounding].
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123
NB: “gamma” in Greek was the letter [_] and was a voiced velar stop.
The Romans rotated it to create the letter [] which represented the sound [].
NB: “gamma” in Greek was the letter [G].
The Romans rotated it to create the letter [C] which represented the sound [k].
The phonetic description of C in Roman is [______] [______] [______] and is represented by the IPA symbol [_].
[voiceless] [velar] [stop]
[k]
The Greek name for the letter H was [______].
[eta]
“eta” (H) in Greek represented a [______] and not a [______].
[vowel] not a [consonant]
“xi” (small cap I on it’s side) in Greek becomes [_] in the Roman alphabet and it represents the sound combination of [__].
“xi” in Greek becomes [X] in the Roman alphabet and it represents the sound combination of [ks].
We look at three cases in this course, they are:
- [______]
- [______]
- [______]
- [nominative]
- [accusative]
- [genitive]
The nominative case denotes the [______] of a [______].
[subject] of a [verb].
The accusative case denotes the [______] of a [______].
[object] of a [verb]
The genitive case denotes the [______].
[possession]
The Latin suffix for inflecting the nomintive case is -[______].
[-s]
The Latin suffix for inflecting the accusative case is -[______].
[-em]
The Latin suffix for inflecting the genitive case is -[______].
[-is]
When a Latin root ending in the letter C is inflected for the nominative case, the letters C + S become the letter [_].
When a Latin root ending in the letter C is inflected for the nominative case, the letters C + S become the letter [X].
The two example of roots given in the text around Latin case inflection are [______] and [______].
[duc] and [urb]
“duc” is a Latin root from [______] which means [______].
[ducere] which means [to lead]
“urb” is a Latin root which means [______].
[city]
The use of X to represent [__] came into English along with Latin words.
Give an example.
[ks]
e.g. matrix
The use of X to represent both [__] and [_] came into English along with words or Greek origin.
Give examples.
The use of X to represent both [ks] and [z] came into English along with words or Greek origin.
e.g. exodus [ks], xylophone [z] or xenophobia [z]
Double-duty letters:
U in Latin represented both the sounds [] and []. These sounds were in [______] [______], i.e. whenever one appeared, the other did not and vice versa.
[u] and [w]
These sounds were in [complementary] [distribution].
In Latin U before a vowel was pronounced [] and U everywhere else was [].
In Latin U before a vowel was pronounced [w] and everywhere else it was [u].
e.g. uiuu [wiwu] from which we derive “vivacious”
I in Latin represented both the sounds [] and []. These sounds were in [______] [______].
I in Latin represented both [i] and [j]. These sounds were in [complementary] [distribution].
In Latin the sound [j] appeared before [______] and [_] appeared everywhere else.
In Latin the sound [j] appeared before [vowels] and [i] appeared everywhere else.
As Late Latin changed and adopting languages needed sounds the letter [] was re-adopted as the [______] letter to [______] [] from [_].
As Late Latin changed and adopting languages needed sounds the letter [Z] was re-adopted as the [final] letter to [distinguish] [z] from [s].
The letter Y was adapted from the Greek letter called [______] and was used in Late Latin when [______] words from [______] such as …. [______] and [______].
The letter Y was adapted from the Greek letter called [upsilon] and was used in Late Latin when [transliterating] words from [Greek] such as …. [symphony] and [chrysanthemum].
When we see Y word internally we can often guess that the origin of the word is [______]… as long as it is not a [______ ______].
When we see Y word internally we can often guess that the origin of the word is [Greek]… as long as it is not a [compound word].
The letter Y in English:
The letter Y was added to the [______ ______] alphabet in [______]. The English innovation was to use Y to represent a [______]. An example of this is found in the word [______] or [______].
The letter Y was added to the [Late Latin] alphabet in [50 BCE]. The English innovation was to use Y to represent a [consonant]. An example of this is found in the word [playing] or [youth].
The letter J in Romance languages:
The letter J was added to Romance languages. This letter was invented by [______] the letter [] and it was used to [______] the letter [].
The letter J was added to Romance languages. This letter was invented by [elongating] the letter [I] and it was used to [replace] the letter [Y].
The letters Y and J then are [______] that can be used to identify the language family of origin except in [______] words like [______] and [______] which demonstrate that this [______] is not perfect.
The letters Y and J then are [shibboleths] that can be used to identify the language family of origin, except in [French] words like [royal] and [loyal] which demonstrate that this [rule] is not perfect.
A shibboleth is…
… use of language regarded as distinctive of a particular group.
The relationship between I and Y in English is very close. This is demonstrated by two mains observations:
- [______] [______]
- [______] [______]
The relationship between I and Y in English is very close. This is demonstrated by two mains observations:
- [dialectical] [differences]
- [frequent] [alternation]
Example of dialectical differences showing the close relationship of I and Y in English are:
a. [______…]
- [dialectical] [differences]
a. British/American spelling oftyre/tire
Examples of frequent alternation of I and Y in CE spelling are:
a. [______…]
b. [______…]
- frequent alternation
a. many adjectives ending in -ly and -y can be nominalized (made into nouns) with the suffix -ness in which Y changes to I.
b. historical spelling as exemplified by Chaucer
eyre/aire
Why can’t words in English end in I?
… at some point it was just decided so words took Y at the end unless they were borrowed directly, e.g. a priori
The rule governing the use of Y in English is that English uses Y to represent [______ and ______] only [______-______ or ______] when the next character is [_] or when it is preceded by a [______].
The rule governing the use of Y in English is that English uses Y to represent [vowels and diphthongs] only [word-finally or internally] when the next character is [I] or when it is preceded by a [vowel].
Spelling rules (and rules in general) are [______ ______].
NB: the rule re Y in English does not hold for words of [______] origin or for English [______].
Spelling rules (and rules in general) are [language specific].
NB: the rule re Y in English does not hold for words of [Greek] origin or for English [compounds].
The Romans had 2 Us. The U was used when writing by [______] and it’s alternate writing [_] was used when [______ on ______].
The Romans had 2 Us. The U was used when writing by [hand] and it’s alternate writing [V] was used when [carving on stele].
The Y in [______, ______ and ______] is considered a consonant.
The Y in [youth, year and young] is considered a consonant.
“i” can represent the sounds [], [__] or [] (in Greek).
“i” can represent the sounds [i], [ay] or [ü] (in Greek).
So, to recap, U in Latin sometimes represented [] and sometimes [].
So, to recap, U in Latin sometimes represented [u] and sometimes [w].
recap… the Romans had two Us, one [______-______] and and alternate when [______].
recap… the Romans had two Us, one [hand-written] and and alternate when [carved].
The Romance languages took [] and assigned it to the sound [].
The Romance languages took [V] and assigned it to the sound [v].
English created the letter [] to distinguish between [] and [_].
English created the letter [W] to distinguish between [u] and [w].
In Romance languages, [] shows up often in cognates where in English [] shows up.
In Romance languages, [v] shows up often in cognates where in English [w] shows up.
Latin V/J and Enlish W/Y words: vegetable revolve value vibrate juvenile January jaundice jugular
Latin V/J and Enlish W/Y words: wake walk wield whip young year yellow yoke
The fact that the Latin system of vowels is inadequate for many languages led to two developments:
- In English, the use of [______ of ______] and the [_____ _]
- The use of [______] in other languages such as the [______] in German for instance
The fact that the Latin system of vowels is inadequate for many languages led to two developments:
- In English, the use of [combinations of vowels] and the [silent e]
- The use of [diacritics] in other languages such as the [umlaut] in German for instance
As language changes, new sounds are represented through:
- [______] previously mentioned
- [______]
As language changes, new sounds are represented through:
- [diacritics] previously mentioned
- [digraphs]
The words “church” CE and “kirche” are cognates. Separate from the GCS, we see here that English at one point had a rule that changed [] > [].
The words “church” CE and “kirche” are cognates. Separate from the GCS, we see here that English at one point had a rule that changed [k] > [“ch” t|].
Spelling rules such as the “silent e” are attempts to [______] phonological (sound change theory) rules.
Spelling rules such as the “silent e” are attempts to [mimic] phonological (sound change theory) rules.
Syllables can [______] with a [______ or ______].
Syllables can [______] with a [______ or ______].
Syllables can [begin] with a [vowel or consonant]. e.g.: at or bat
Syllables can [end] with a [vowel or consonant]. e.g.: see or set
Permissible syllable structures are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Permissible syllable structures are:
- V e.g.: a
- VC e.g.: at
- CV e.g.: co
- CVC e.g.: cot
The sequence VCV is divided …
The sequence VCV is divided V | CV.
The sequence VCCV is divided …
The sequence VCCV is divided VC | CV.
Languages that have [______] rules require a notion of what a [______] is.
Languages that have [stress] rules require a notion of what a [syllable] is.
Syllables ending in a vowel are [______] and [______] e.g.:
Syllables ending in a vowel are [open] and [long] e.g.: my, see, bate [ba | te]
Syllables ending in a consonant are [______] and [______] e.g.:
Syllables ending in a consonant are [closed] and [short] e.g.: bat
These rules allowed syllable structure to [______] and [______] vowel length.
These rules allowed syllable structure to [govern] and [predict] vowel length.
Prior to this, long vowels were represented by [______ the ______].
This is frozen in the language with words like: …
Prior to this, long vowels were represented by [doubling the vowel].
This is frozen in the language with words like: … beet, seek, meet, keep
Once vowel length was predicted by [______ ______] we had another option.
Once vowel length was predicted by [syllable structure] we had another option.
One trick used to create an orthographic closed syllable is [______ the ______].
One trick used to create an orthographic closed syllable is [doubling the consonant].
