lifespan development Flashcards
Genotype Vs Phenotype
Genotype- persons genetic inheritance
Phenotype- his or her observed chacteristics, which are due to heredity and environment
Bronfenbrenners Ecological Model
Five environmental systems or levels
Microsystem- childs immediate environment face to fce with school home, and neighborhood ( relationships with parents, siblings, peers and teachers
Mesosystem- interactions between components of the microsystem such as influence of family factors on the childs behavior at school
Exosystem- broader environment that affect the childs immediate environment and include parents workplace, school board,
Macrosystem- environmental influences such as cultural beliefs, economic conditions,
Chronosystem- environmental elements that occur over an individuals lifespan and impact the individual in ways such as SES
Rutter’s Indicators
Six factors accurate predictors of child psychopathology: Severe martial discord, low SES, overcrowding or large family size, parental criminality, maternal psychopathology, placement of the child outside the home
Niche Picking
occurs when child actively seek out experiences that are consistent with their genetic predispotions
Critical vs sensitive periods
Ethology- branch of zoology that is dedicated to study of animal behavior,
Critical periods- specific predetermined periods of time of biological maturation when an organism is senstive to certain stimuli that can have a positive or negative affect
**Lorenz- found that goslings imprint on the firstmoving object they see during the first two to three days ( usually mother) follow and stay near to help survival, ** critical period for imprinting
Sensitive periods- longer in duration, more flexible than critical periods, not tied as closely to chronological age or maturational age
Phenylketonuria
Recessive gene disorder, ( one from each parent) - lack an enzyme needed to metabolize phenylalanine ( amino acid) found in milk, bread, eggs, beginning a diet low in PKU prevents severe intellectual disability than can accompany this disorder
Down Syndrome
autosonomal disorder, extra chromosone 21 - characterized by intellectual disability, retarded physical growth, motor development, increased susceptibilty to alzheimer’s diease, heart defects
Klinefelter Syndrome
occurs in males and due to the presence of two or more X chromosomes with a single Y , have a small penis and testes, develop breasts during puberty, limited interest in sexual activity, learning disabilities
Turner Syndrome
occurs in females and is caused by presence of single X chromosome, short in stature, webbed neck, absent development of secondary sex characteristics, impaired cognitive deficits
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
largely irrevesible symptoms, may result when mother drinks heavily during second half of the first trimester,
include facial abnormalities, limited phsyical growth, hearing impairments, cognitive deficits, behavioral problems, hyperactivity,
*most affected regions include corpus collusum, hippocampus, hypothalmus, cerebellum, basal ganglia and frontal lobes
Maternal Malnutrition
associated with miscarriage, stillbirth and low birth weight, may result in intellectual disability ,
*severe malnutrition in the third trimester determintal for the developing brain lead to a reduced number of neurons, lack of folic acid can lead in spina bifida
Cerebral Cortex
underdeveloped at birth, responsible for higher level cognitive functions, language, spatial skills, and complex motor activity,
*first few months primary and motoro areas of the cortex undergo substantial development, prefrontal cortex continues to mature through childhood and adolescence may not be fully developed till early 20s.
Neurogenesis
compesenate for neuronal loss by forming new snaptic connections and neural pathways and new neurons in the hippocampus
Early Reflexes, Babinski, Moro
Babinski- toes fan out and upward when soles of the feet are tickled
Moro- flings arms and legs outward and then toward the body in response to a loud noise or sudden loss of physical support
Vision
- least developed at birth, 6 months infants visual activity is close to that of a normal adult,
- depth perception develops first as kinetic( motion), binocular cues and pictorial cues, newborns prefer to look at high constrat patterns, prefer looking at faces by 2-5 days old, and then 2 months- prefer face of mother
Auditory Localization
ability to orient toward the direction of a sound is evident shortly after birth, seems to dissapear between 2-4 months and reppears and improves during the rest of 1st year.
*3 months, infants distinguish between different voices and prefer mothers voice,
Pain Perception
- newborns who were not given anthesthesia during circumsion had a more adverse reaction than those who received anthesthesia when given a routine vaccination 4-6 months later,
- full term infants who undergo painful medical procedures during infancy later exhibit heightened responsivity to pain , while preterm infants who experience those procedures exhibit reduced reactivity to pain later in infancy
Developmental Milestones 1-3 months
able to raise chin from ground, turn head side to side, by third month can play with hands and fingers and brings object in hand to mouth
4-6 months
rolls from abdomen to back, 5 months sits on lap and reaches and grasps, 6 months sits alone and stands with help,
7-9 months
good coordination, 8-9 months- sits alone without support, begins crawling, 9-10 pulls self to standing by holding furniture
10-12 months
stands alone and walks with help, 12 months takes steps alone
13-15 months
walks alone with a wide based gait, by 15 months creeps up stairs,
16-25 months
18 months runs clusismly, walks up stairs with hand held, 24 months- goes up and down steps alone, kicks a ball, turns pages of book, 50% of children use toliet during the day
25-48 months
30 months jumps with both feet, good hand finger coordination, 36 months rides tricyle, dresses and undresses simple clothing, completely toliet trained, 48 months- preference over right or left hand
Physical Maturation in Adolescence
Boys: early maturation- several benefits including popularity with peers, athletic skills, dissatisfaction with body image, increased risk for alcohol use
Late maturation- more childish, more attention seeking behaviors, less confidence, more susceptible to depression
Girls: Early maturation– negative consequences such as poor self concept,unpopular, dissatisfied with physical development , low academic achievement, more likely to engage in sexual behaviors and drug and alcohol use, increased risk for eating disorder or depression
Late maturation- dissastified with appearance, treated like little girls, outperform peer with academic performance
Visual Changes in Adulthood
most adults notice inability to focus on close objects ( presbyopia) around age 40
65- visual changes interfere with reading, driving, rduced perception of depth, increased light sensivity, and deficits in visual search, speed of visual processing
Sexual Activity in Late Adulthood
sexual activity in mid life and earlier is a good predictor,
adults ages 57 to 85 years of age reported a frequency of sexual activity similar to the freqeuncy reported in earlier study of adults 18-59
survey of adults 60 + found that 43% of all respondents and 61% of respondents with current sex partners with more physically sastifying or unchanged compared to 40s
Adaption( Assimilation and Accommodation)
Assimilation- incorporation of new knowledge into existing schemas
Accommodation- modification of existing schemas to incorporate new knowledge
Sensiromotor Stage
birth-two years- Child learns about objects and other people through the sensory information they provide,
Subtage 1- Relexive Schemas- birth to 1 month- infant exercises his or her reflexes
Substage 2- Primary Circular Reactions- 1-4 months- infant attempts to repeat pleasurable events involving his or her own body
Substage 3- Secondary Circular Reactions ( 4-8 months) infant attempts to reproduce pleasurable events involving other people or objects
Substage 4- Coordinated Secondary Circular Reactions- (8-12 months) infant combines secondary circular reactions ( schemas) into new complex action sequences
Substage 5- tertiary circular reactions ( 12-18 months) - infant deliberately varies an action sequence to discover the consequence of doing so
Subtage 6- Mental Representation- (18-24 months) - infant develops representational symbolic thought which involves forming internal representations that allow him or her to think about absent objects and past events
*object permanence- allows the child to recognize that objects and people continue to exist when they are out of sight
Symbolic play and imitation also occur
Preoperational Stage
2-7 years old- symbolic( semotic( function- child to learn through the use of language, mental images and other symbols,
Precasual transductive reasoning-incomplete understanding of cause and effect
Magical thinking- belief that thinking about something will actually cause it to occur
Animism- tendency to attribute human characteristics to intimate objects
*do not recognize that actions can be reversed and focus on more noticeable details ( centration)
Concrete Operational
7-11 - capable of mental operations, solve class problems, understand part whole relationships in relational terms,
Conversation- operations of reversibility and decentration and develops gradually with conversation numbers occurring first.
Hortizontal declage- gradual acquisition of conversation abilities and other abilities within a specific stage of development
Formal Operational
11 or 12+ years- able to think abstractly and capable of hypothetico- deductive reasoning, identify competing hypotheses about a problem and strategies for systematically testing those hypotheses.
Adolescent egocentrism-
Personal fable- belief that one is unique and not subject to the natural laws that govern others, and imaginary audience- belief that one is always the center of attentin
Information Processing
cognitive development as involving increasing information processing capacity and efficiency. Improvements in memory are due to increased memory capacity, enhanced processing speed, and greater automaticity. focus on development within specific cognitive domains such as attention, memory and reasoning rather than on identifying global principles of development.
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory ( ZPD, Scaffolding)
sociocultural model- all learning as socially mediated and proposes that cognitive development is interpersonal( interactions with others) and then intrapersonal( when the child internalizes what he or she has learned)
Zone of proximal development- refers to the discrepancy between a childs current developmental level and the level of development that is just beyond his or her current level but can be reached when an adult or more experienced peer provides scaffolding
Scaffolding- instructions, assistance, support and most effective when it involves modeling, providing cues, and encouraging the child to think about alternative plans of action.
Symbolic play- provides a child with zone of proximal development that enables the child to practice behaviors in situations that require less precision and accuracy than would be required in reality.
Theory of Mind
the ability to make inferences about another representational states and to predict behavior accordingly
Ages two to three- children become aware of other peoples mental states and begin to understand that people have different perceptions, emotions, and desires that influence their actions
Age four to five- understand that another persons thoughts may be false and that people act on false beliefs
After age 5- children begin to develop a more sophisticated theory of mind by about age 6 and realize that peoples actions are not always consistent with their true thoughts and feelings , people may interpret the same event differently
Memory Strategies in Childhood
preschoolers sometimes use non deliberate memory strategies but do so in an ineffective way, and elementary school children use somewhat more effective strategies but distracted by irrelevant information , when taught rehearsal strategies, young children may apply them to the immediatr situation but not use them in new situations
*by age 9-10- children tend to use memory strategies use regularly, beginning with rehearsal, organization, and elaboration,
Childhood ( Infantile) Amnesia
inability to recall memories experienced prior to age 3 or 4, because the prefrontal lobe are not sufficiently developed prior to age 4.
Effects of Age on memory
negative impact on explicit memory than implicit memory, more trouble recalling what they need to buy at the grocery store then remembering the words to a familar song ,
- older adults exhibit greatest declines in recent long term memory, followed by working memory,
- episodic memory is more adversly affected by age related decline
- working memory deficits due to reduced processing efficiency, deficits in long term due to encoding
Theories of Language Development ( nativist approach/Chomsky)
biological mechanisms and stresses universal patterns of language development, innate language acquistion device makes it possible for a person to acquire language just by being exposed to it.
Behavior approach- language is acquired through imitation and reinforcement
Interactionists- biological and environmental factors, some cultures adults use child directed speech,
Semantic and Syntactic Bootstrapping
Semantic Bootstrapping- child’s use of his or her knowledge of the meaning of words to infer their grammatical catergory, children learn that words refer to objects or persons are nouns, actions are verbs
Syntactic bootstrapping- childs use of syntactical knowledge to learn the meaning of new words
child encountering a new noun in an utterance may begin to infer the nouns meaning by grammatical terms
Phonemes and Morphemes
Phonemes- smallest units of sound that are understood in a language
Morphemes- smallest unit of sound that convey meaning
Bilingualism/Bilingual Education
billingual children do well, or even better than monolingual children on tests measuring language and cognitive skills,
billingual children tend to score higher than monolinguals on measures of cognitive flexibility, cognitive complexity, anayltical reasoning, working memory capacity, attentional control, and awareness
Cooing and Babbling
6-8 weeks begin cooing ,that mainly consist of vowels
Cooing and Babbling
6-8 weeks begin cooing ,that mainly consist of vowels , followed by 4 months, babbling which involves repition of simple constonant and vowel sounds, early babbling is sounds of all languages, between 9-14 months narrow it to that of native language
Echolalia and Expressive Jargon
9 months- imitate adult speech sounds and words without understanding of their meaning ( echolalia) , followed by expressive jargon which involves vocalization that sound like sentences but have no meaning
First Words
First words are often nonimals, or labels for objects, people, or events, speak first words around 10-15 months
1-2 years of age, children use single words that express whole phrases and sentences,- referred to as holophrastic speech
13 months of age- infants understand 50 words,
Telegraphic Speech
18-14 months, string two or more words together to make a sentence,
Underexstension
occurs when a child applies a word too narrowly to objects or situations,
Overextension
- occurs when a child applies a word to a wider collection of objects or events than is appropriate
Behavioral Inhibition
relatively stable temperment chacteristic,
Kagan research found that children identified as either inhibited or unhibitied, at 21 months of age were similar to that of them at 5 and 7 years,
* in unfamiliar situations, inhibited children have higher heart rate, greater pupillary dilation, larger changes in blood pressure than unhibited children
*inhibition in early childhood have increased risk for social anxiety, less positive social life, behavioral inhibition can be modified by parental child rearing pratices with warm supportive parents
Goodness of Fit Model ( Thomas and Chess)
Easy Children- even tempered, regular sleeping and eating habits, adapt easily to new situations and peopple
Difficult Children- irritable, withdraw from new situations and people, have unpredictable habits,
Slow to warm up children- inactive and somewhat negative in mood and take time to adjust to new stimuli
goodness of fit- degree of match between parents behaviors and childr’s temperment that contribute to outcomes
Oral Stage:
birth to 1 year, mouth is focus of sensation, and weaning is source of conflict, fixations result in dependence, orraly focused behaviors such as smoking, overeating
Anal Stage
1-3- main issue is control of bodily waste and conflict stem from toliet training, fixation produces retentiveness, stinginess, obsessive compulsive behaviors,
Phallic Stage
3-6, sexual energy is in libido and primary resolution is the Oedipal conflict- marked by desire for opposite sex parent and view as same sex parent as rival,
Latency Stage
6-12- developing social skills rather than achieving sexual gratification
Genital Stage
12 years and up- centered in gentials and successful outcome occurs when sexual desire is blended with affection to produce mature adult relationships
Basic Trust vs Mistrust
0-1.5- postive relationship with ones primary caregiver during infancy results in sense of trust and optimism
Autonomy vs Shame
1.5-3 years- sense of self develops out of positive interactions with ones parents
Initiative vs Guilt
3-5- favorable relationships with familymembers result in an ability to set goals and devise and carry out plans without infringing on the rights of others
Industry vs Inferiority
5-12- people in the neighborhood and school, master certain social and academic skills
Identity vs Role Confusion
12-18- peers are the dominant social influence, positive outcome related to personal identity
Intimacy vs Isolation
18-40- main tasks is intimate bonds of love and friendship
Generativity vs Stagnation
40-65- people that you live and work with are most important, commitment to the well being of future generations
Ego Integrity vs Despair
65 and up- development of wisdom are most important leading up to mortality
Authoritarian
exhibit a high degree of demandingness and low responivity, impose absolute standards of conduct, stress obedience and use physical punishment, low levels of self esteem and academic achievement
Authoritative
- high degree of demandingness, high degree of responsiveness, rely on reasoning, praise, explanations,
- ten to be responsible, achievement oriented, high self esteem, self confident
Permissive
- warm and caring but make few demands,
* tend to be immature, impulsive, self centered, low in achivement and independence
Rejecting/Neglecting
low levels of responvity, and overly hostile toward children,
*low self esteem, impulsive, moody and aggressiveness, similar to those of junivele deliquents, research found that adolescent deliquency is associated with lack of parental warmth, lack of supervision and inconsistent or harsh punishment
Maternal Depression
increases child risk for emotional and behavioral problems,
- physiological signs of distress in children associated with maternal depression( elevated heart rate, greater right frontal lobe asymmetry,) are apparent by the time the child is 3 months old,
- studies of toddlers have linked maternal depression to passive noncompliance, and poorer performance of congitive linguistic functioning
- parental depression linked to father child conflict and to internalizing and externalizing symptoms in children,
Kohlbergs cognitive development model
2-3- Gender identity- children recognizes they are male or female
Gender Stablility- children realize gender is stable over time
Gender Constancy- 6-7 - children understand gender is constant over situations,
Bems Gender Schema Model
acquistion of a gender identity to a combination of social learning and cognitive devopment, children develop schemas of masculinity and femininity, organize how indivudal percieves and thinks about the world
Androgny
- combines both masculine and feminine chacterstics, benefits of androgny linked it to a number of positive chacteristics including greater flexibilty when coping with difficult situations, higher levels of life satisfaction and greater comfort with ones sexuality
Identity Statuses Marcia
Identity diffusion- adolecents exhibiting diffusion have not yet experienced an identity crisis
Identity Foreclosure: when adolescents have no experienced a crisis but have adopted an identity that has been imposed by the same sex parent or other person
Identity Moratorium- occurs when an adolescent experiences identity crisis and actively explores alternative identities, teens exhibit high degree of confusion, discontent, and rebelliousness
Identity Achievement: adolescents who have resolved the identity crisis by evaluating alternatives and committing to an identity are identity achieved
Relational Crisis ( Gilligan)
11 or 12 year old girls experience a relational crisis in increasing pressure to be a perfect good woman, they disconnect from themselves in order to maintain relationships with others, include drop in academic achievement, loss of self esteem , increased vulnerability to psychological problems,
Stages of Grief (Kubler Ross)
Denial, anger, bargaining , depression, acceptance
Contact Comfort
Harlows model of contact comfort comes from work with infant Rhesus monkeys, regardless of which mother provided food, the monkeys spent more time clinging to the cloth mother,
concluded that babys attachment is due to tacticle sensation provided by a soft cuddly parent, exposure of an infant to his mother during the critical period ( 1st year) results in a bond between them that helps them ensure the infants surivial.
Internal Working Model
- mental representation of self and others that influence the childs future relationships
Social Referencing
sign of attachment, 6 months of age, infants demonstrate social referencing which involves looking at a caregiver to determine how to respond in new or ambigious ways , visual cliff exercise depends on his or her moms facial expression, when the mom is standing on other side looking happy, the child is willing to cross, if mom looks angry or upset, child is much less likely to do so
Separation Anxiety
6-8 months, peaks in intensity at 14-18 months and then declines
Stranger Anxiety: ;
8-10 months, infants become fearful and anxious in presence of a stranger, continues till age 2 then diminishes
Secure Attachment
securely attached infant explores the room, plays with toys in the room while mother is present, baby becomes midly upset when the mother leaves and seeks comofrt upon return
*mothers are emotionally sensitive and responsive to babys cues
Insecure/Ambivalent Attachment
alternates between clinging and resisting his or her mother, becomes very disturbed when left alone with a stranger, and ambivalent when the mother returns and becomes angry and may avoid her
*mothers of these children are moody, inconsistent,
Insecure/Avoidant Attachment
interact very little with his or her mother, little distress when she leaves, avoids or ignores her when she returns, act in a similar manner to mothers and strangers,
*mothers are very impatient and unresponsive,
Disorganized/Disoriented
children exhibit fear of their caregiver, dazed confused facial expression,
80% of infants who have been mistreated by their caregivers exhibit this pattern
Adult Attachment Interview Autonomous
classfied as autonomous when they give coherent descriptions of their childhood relationship with their parents. Adults tend to have children who exhibit a secure attachment in the strange situation
Adult Attachment Interview Dismissing
provide a positive description of their childhood relations with their parents, but descriptions are either not supported or are contradicted by specific memories, avoidant attachment pattren
Adult Attachment Interview Preoccupied
when they become very angry or confused when describing their childhood relationships with parens or seem passively preoccupied with a parents, resistant/ambilanvent attachment
Coercive Family Interaction Model
familys of highly aggressive boys are distuingisable from other familys in two chacterstics, coercive interactions( aggressive behaviors by both family and children), and reward their childrens aggression with approval and attention
- coercive family interaction model- proposes that children intitally learn aggressive behaviors from their parents who raely reinforce prosical behaviors, use harsh discpline, and reward childs agressiveness with approval and attention, aggressive parent child interaction escalates
Patterson developed Parent management training model
Social Cognitive Factors
certain factors that contrubute to aggression-self efficacy beliefs( more likely to say that it was easy to perform aggressive acts difficult to inhibt agressive impulses) beliefs about the outcome of their behavior, regret or remorse( show little regret or remorse)
*linked agression to hostile attribution bias- tendency to misinterpret positive or ambigious acts of others as intentionally hostile,
Piagets Stages of Moral Development
Heternomous Stage
7-10, children believe rules are set by authority figures and are unalterable, when judging whether an act is right, or wrong they consider whether a rule has been violated and what the consequences of the act are, ( greater negative consequence the worse the act)
Autonomous Mortality
age 11- view rules as artbitary and as being alterable when the people who are governed by them agree to change them, more on the intention of the actor than the consequences
Kolbergs Levels of Moral Development
Heinz dilemena- particpant asked to explain why or she believes it is better to steal a drug to save a persons life or to obey the law by not stealing the drug
Preconventional
Punishment and Obedience- goodness or badness of an act depends on its consequences, right course is the one that allows you to avoid punishment
Instrumental Hedonism- consequences guide moral judgements, but judgements are based more obtaining rewards and personal needs
Conventional
Good Boy/Good girl- right act is the one liked or approved by others
Law and Order- moral judgement are based on the rules and laws established by legitimate authorities
Postconventional
Mortality of Contract, Individual Rights, and Decomcratically Accepted Laws- moral right action is the one that is consistent with democratically determined laws( which can be changed if they interfere with basic rights)
Morality of Individual Principles of Conscience- right and wrong are determined on the basis of broad, self chosen, universally applicable Principles
progression trhough the stages depends on the level of reasoning but the individuals motivation, oppurtunities to take the perspective of others, and exposure to social instiutions that foster equality and recicrporcity, relationship between moral judgement and moral action is strongest for individuals at higher stages of moral development
Diminished Capacity Parent
divorced parents experience high emotional distress, and changes in functioning
Diminished capacity to parent- mothers who have physical custody of children, are frequently social isolated, experience a dcline in income, also to be impatient, uncommunicative, and less warm and loving toward children ( expecially sons) and monitor childrens activities less closely,
Effects of Divorce on Children Age:
children who are preschoolers initally exhibit more problems than older children, long term consequences may be worse for older children,,
*found that children who were 6 to 8 years old at the time of the divorce exhibited painful memories ten years later,
Sleeper Effect:
girls who were in preschool or elementary school at the time of the divorce did not show negative consequences until adolescence when they develop a number of problems including noncompliant behavior, decreased self esteem, sexual promuscity, as young adults these girls are at high risk for experiencing depression, and intense anxiety about beytrayl
Parental Conflict
Parental conflict rather than divorce that increase the risk for adverse outcomes for children,
studies showing that children with divorced parents do not differ substantially with regard to behavioral problems, conflictual intact families are more determential to a childs well being than a stable one parent home, childrens whose parents report a high level of pre divorce conflict are better off in terms of psychollogical well being after the divorce than children who report low level of conflict
Lack of parental conflict after divorce is more important for childs adjustment than the frequency of contact
Remariage Childs age:
impact of remarriage can be related to childrens age- in study found that stress and conflict between parents and their children was greatest when children were nine years of age or older at the time of the remarriage, and that early adolescence was a damaging time for remarriage to occur,
* studies show girls may have more problems than boys, evidence that boys having a stepfather may be benefical for preadolecent boys, develop close relationships
Stepparents
confirm that stepparents ( escpecially stepfathers) are less involved with them than biological parents are,
Stepfathers- more distant and disengaged than biological counterparts, parenting style adopted by a stepparent is important of the steparent stepchild relationship,
Authoratitive parenting style has a positive effect especially on the stepparent step son relationships
Maternal Employment
children of working moms have mor eegilatrian gender role concepts, and more positive views of feminimitnity, and daughters have higher levels of self esteem, independence, academic achievement, and achievement motivation, and higher career goals
Gay and Lesbian Parents
nature of parent child relationship is more important than a parents sexual orientation, children are similar to heterosexual parent kids in terms of social relations, psychological adjustment, cognitive functioning, gender identitiy development,
* studies have shown that parental skills are similar or even superior than those of heterosexual couples,
Child Sexual Abuse
Children who have been physically abused have delays in cognitive development and poor school achievement, fewer friends and more problems with relationships with teachers and other adults,
effects of sexual abuse less severe when abuse was committed by a stranger than a family member
Increased risk for maltreatment:
Child Chacteristics: low birth weight, premature birth, difficult temperment, chronic illness, younger age, girl gender
Parent Chacteristics: history of maltreatment as a child, alcohol or drug use, psychopathology, harsh displince, low education level, younger age,
Family Chacterstics: poverty, unemployment, social isolation, domestic violence, lack of access to medicall and social services
Sibling Relationships
most interactions between young siblings involve proscial play oriented behavior, Middle childhood- marked by combination of closeness/conflict and cooperation/competition , siblings rely on each other for support and companionship but sibling rivarly increases and is most intense among same age siblings 1.5 to 3 years apart in age
Adolesence- siblings spend less time together, less emotionally intense, and friction declines when they view each other as equals,
Rejected vs Neglected peers
rejected aggressive children- tend to be hostile, hyperactive, and impulsive and have difficulty regulating negative emotions and taking perspective of others,
Rejected withdrawn peers- high degree of social anxiety, submissive victim of bullies
Neglected- fewer than average interactions with peers, being alone is desirable, and do not report being particulary lonely or unhappy.
*overall outcomes are worse for children who are actively rejected, still worse even when social groups change
Socioemotional Selectivity
social motives correspond to perceptions of time left in life as being limited or unlimited. *social goals have two primary functions, acquistion of knowledge and regulation of emotuon,
Empty nest Syndrome
martial satisfaction increases, for women incease is related more to an increase in the quality of interactions with their partner
Self Fulfilling Prophecy Effect
Rosenthal study- first grade teachers were told at the beginning of the school year that some of students were academic bloomers and could be expected to do exceptionally well, at the end of the year students had unsuanal gains in IQ scores, because os subtle differences in the way that teachers treated them vs other children
Gender and teacher feedback
boys are more likely to be corrected, criticized, praised and helped,
Boys- criticized for failure to do their work neatly, but praised for intellectual accomplishments, and task related behavior
Girls- often recieve criticism for a lack of ability or inadequate inteluctual performance, and praise for their effort cooperation and dependent behaviors
Compensatory Preschool Programs
children who attend these problems have better attitudes toward school, less likely to fall back a grade,
Montessori Method
child centered, materials and enrvionrment are designed to fit the childs abilities, and learning is experiential with children recieving support and guidance from teachers that helps them advance at their own pace.
*learning stems from perception, and can be maximized using sense perception, instructional methods enhance sense discrimination
