lifespan development Flashcards
how is development defined
-development over the life span is multi-directional, multi-contextual, multi-cultural, and plastic.
-it is a science that depends on theories, data, analysis, etc.
mult-directional
if all human traits were charted from birth to death, some traits would appear, others disappear, increase, decrease, spiral, etc.
multicontextual
everyone is profoundly affected by their surroundings.
Scientific method
- begin with curiosity
- develop a hypothesis
- test the hypothesis
- draw conclusions
- report the results
what is the lifespan approach
the lifespan approach takes into account ALL phases of life and all aspects of development.
what are the “multis” of the lifespan approach?
This perspective is multidisciplinary, with insights from psychology, biology, history, and sociology.
what are two theories at the intersection of nature or nuture?
some people believe that most traits are inborn-someone is innately good or bad
others believe that the environment has everything to do with who they become
differential susceptibility
the impact of any good or bad experience might be magnified or inconsequential, depending on genes OR experiences
(dandelion or orchid metaphor)
what is the concept of discontinuity in human development
change can occur rapidly and dramatically, qualitative change
ex: when caterpillars become butterflies
how does continuity in human development differ from discontinuity?
continuity is different from discontinuity because it is a gradual timeline, quantitative change
ex: redwoods
what are the assumptions of discontinuity theories?
abruptness assumption,
concurrence assumption, coherent organization assumption
abruptness assumption
development involves sudden, qualitative changes rather than a gradual, incremental progress
ex: one day the baby is scooting, then the next day they begin crawling in an advanced way.
concurrence assumption
multiple or new skills or abilities emerge at the same time
ex: as the baby moves from crawling to walking, theres often a concurrent development on improving their balance, for example
coherent organization assumption
new skills or abilities develop in a logically organizes and integrated way, where each development builds on or reorganizes previous ones.
ex: when the baby finally begins to walk, this new ability is not random, but a coherent reorganization of earlier movements, like scooting or crawling.
critical periods
a time when something must occur for normal development, or the only time when an abnormality may arise.
ex: the critical period for humans to grow limbs is between 28-54 days
sensitive periods
this is when a particular development occurs more easily BUT not exclusively at a certain time.
ex: communicating through language
What is the main idea of Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological model?
Bronfenbrenner believed that each person is affected by many social contexts and interpersonal interactions
microsystem
family, friends
exosystem
school, church
macrosystem
cultural values, economic policies
to say that something is “empirical” means that it is
based on data
race
social construct label used to categorize people based on physical appearance
ethnicity
belonging to a social group with a common cultural or national history /tradition
members of a given cohort experience the same
historical events at about the same age
church is an example of
an exosystem
Piaget’s concrete operational period typically occurs from the age of
6 to 11 years
the imitation of the behaviors of others through observation is called
modeling
cross-sequential research is a combination of which two research techniques?
cross-sectional and longitudinal
the crucial ethical concern that must begin all developmental studies is that
it must address collaboration, replication and transparency of the study
classical conditioning
learning by association
operant conditioning
learning by consequences
psychoanalytic theory was created by
Freud
According to Freud, crucial development occurs in the first
six years of life
According to the psychoanalytic theory, early development occurs in three stages, characterized by
the sexual pleasure centered on a particular part of the body
According to the psychoanalytic theory, infants experience the
oral stage because their erotic body part is the mouth
According to the psychoanalytic theory, early childhood focuses on the
anal stage, with a focus on the anus and toilet training
According to the psychoanalytic theory, preschoolers enter
the phallic stage, where the penis becomes the source of pride and fear for boys and a reason for sadness and envy for girls
According to the psychoanalytic theory, during middle childhood there is
a latency period, an interlude, or a quiet period
According to the psychoanalytic theory, development ends at the
genital stage, at puberty
psychosocial theory was created by
Erikson
The psychosocial theory emphasized
family and culture and its influence on development
trust vs mistrust (Psychosocial theory)
babies will either trust that others will satisfy their basic needs OR develop a mistrust about the care of others
Autonomy vs shame and doubt (Psychosocial theory)
children either become self-sufficient in walking, exploring, etc. OR doubt their own abilities
initiative vs guilt (Psychosocial theory)
children either try to undertake many adult-like activities OR internalize the limits by parents
industry vs inferiority (Psychosocial theory)
children busily practice then master new skills OR feel inferior, unable to do anything well
identity vs role confusion (Psychosocial theory)
adolescents ask themselves “who am i?” and establish identities OR are confused about their roles
intimacy vs isolation (Psychosocial theory)
young adults seek companionship and love OR become isolated from others fearing rejection
generativity vs stagnation (Psychosocial theory)
middle-aged adults contribute to future generations through work and parenthood OR they stagnate
integrity vs despair (Psychosocial theory)
older adults try to make sense of their lives, either seeing life as a meaningful whole OR despairing at goals never reach
behaviorism was created by
Pavlov
unlike the psychoanalytic theories, behaviorism
emphasizes nurture, including the social context and culture but specifically the immediate responses from other people to whatever a person does
the social learning theory was created by
Bandura
the social learning theory notes that
because humans are social beings, they learn from observing others, even without personal reinforcement
an example of social learning is
children who witness domestic violence are influenced by it, even when they personally do not experience it
the cognitive theory was created by
piaget
the cognitive theory says that
each persons ideas and beliefs are crucial
“cognitive” in cognitive theory refers to
not just thinking, but also to attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions
sensorimotor (cognitive theory)
infants learn that objects still exist when out of sight (object permanence) and begin to think through mental actions
preoperational (cognitive theory)
the imagination flourishes, and language becomes a significant means of self-expression and social influence
concrete operational (cognitive theory)
applying logic, children grasp concepts of conservation, numbers, classification, and many other scientific ideas
formal operational (cognitive theory)
ethics, politics, and social and moral issues become fascinating as adolescents and adults use abstract, theoretical reasoning
cognitive equilibrium
a state of mental balance
intellectual advancement occurs
because humans seek cognitive equilibrium
information processing
is NOT a stage theory but rather provides a detailed description of the steps of cognition
evolutionary theory says
according to evolution, every species strives to survive and reproduce
scientific observation
requires researchers to record behavior systematically and objectively
experiments aim
to establish causality
independent variable
is the extra treatment or special condition
dependent variable
The independent variable affects whatever they are studying
a survey is
Information is collected from a large number of people by interview, questionnaire, or some other method and are a quick way to collect data
Cross-sectional research
Compares people of one age with similar people of another age
Longitudinal research
Collect data repeatedly on the same individuals over time
Cross-sequential research
Combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal
a correlation exists
between two variables if one variable is more or less likely to occur when the other does
a correlation is positive if
both variables tend to increase together or decrease together
a correlation is negative if
one variable tends to increase while the other decreases
there is zero correlation if
there is no connection between variables
Quantitative research
can be easily summarized, compared, charted, and replicated.
Quantitative data
are easier to replicate, easier to compare across cultures, and less open to bias, however, nuances and individuality are lost
Qualitative research
asks open-ended questions, reports answers in narrative form, and reflects cultural and contextual diversity
code of ethics
are a set of moral principles
The Institutional Review Board
is a group that requires research to follow guidelines set by the federal government
study: are murderer’s brains different from ours?
this study wanted to see if murderers’ brains function differently at aa neurologically. The brain scans showed that nature and nurture were both important; some people are “hardwired” to kill and by nature are murderous; however, some peoples environment can still be a factor in a murder
epigenetics
the study of how the environment influences genetic expression
Study: the effects of loneliness
studied extreme social deprivation on mice, results showed that prolonged loneliness can affect biological, and neurological, and change the structures of your brain
non-experimental
documents relations between variables
examples of non-experimental studies
-children’s age and suggestibility
-stress and suggestibility
advantages of non-experimental design
-determine how variables are related
-identify factors associated with increased risk
-study situations that cannot be controlled experimentally
disadvantages of non-experimental design
-just because two variables are related does not mean they always co-occur
-correlation does not prove causation
experimental studies
manipulate one variable to determine its effect on another variable
example of experimental study: effects of interviewer behavior on children’s memory
-children visited the lab and played
-children’s memory tested afterward
-interviewers were either supportive or nonsupportive
-children who had supportive interviewers had better memory than those who had unsupportive interviewers
the mothers ovum contains
X
the fathers sperm contains
X or Y
eye color is said to be
polygenic
the neural tube eventually develops in the
spinal cord
What gene is known for signaling the development of the male sex organs during fetal development
SRY
low birth weigh is defined as a body weight less than __ at birth
5 1/2 pounds
Which test measures the responsiveness of newborns and records 46 behaviors, including 20 reflexes
Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)
The Apgar scale measures the
newborns’ health following the birth
Which term describes feelings of inadequacy and sadness following the birth of a baby?
postpartum depression
genotype
combination of genes an organism has (genetic makeup
what is different about the 23rd (last) pair of chromosomes?
unlike the matched pairs of the other 22. the 23rd pair can either be a match (XX) or not (XY)
characteristics of a Y chromosome
-smaller than the X, contains fewer genes
-has the gene to grow a penis
-the Y comes from the father
each reproductve cell is called a
gamete (either a sperm or an ovum)
when two opposite gametes combine, it creates a
zygote
the genome is
the entire packet of instructions to make a living organism
an allele is
a variation that makes a gene different in some way from other genes for the same characteristics (ex. eye color)
genotypes
are the genetic material that the 46 chromosomes carry. they are inherited and passed down by gametes (cannot know a persons genotypes just by looking at them)
phenotypes
is the actual appearance and manifest behavior of a person; how someone looks, functions and acts
the phenotype
reflects the genotype
methylation
is the process of coding a material that surrounds the genes, resulting in an enhancement, transcription, or silences genetic instructions
a person is called a carrier when
a recessive gene is on the genotype but not the phenotype
what is the only type of cell in the human body that does not contain all of a person’s chromosomes?
gametes. each sperm or ovum contains only half of each pair of chromosomes. only 23 instead of 46
microbiome
refers to all the microbes that live within every part of our body
microbes influence
immunity, weight, diseases, moods, nutrition, etc.
social interactions
have the ability to change the gene expression of a person (e.g. a premature baby who had to deal with a lot of pain after birth may display signs of that later in life)
copy number variations
genes with repeats or deletions of base pairs, which can correlate with heart disease, intellectual disability, mental illness, and many cancers.
monozygotic twins
come from only one zygote
dizygotic twins
come from 2 zygotes, 2 ova are fertilized by 2 sperm at the same time
the first two weeks of prenatal development are
the germinal period
the 3-8th week of prenatal development is
the embryonic period
from the 8th week until birth is the
fetal period
vulnerability during the germinal period
estimated 65% of all zygotes do not grow or implant properly and thus do not survive this period
vulnerability during the embryonic period
about 20% of all embryos are aborted spontaneously due to a chromosomal abnormality
vulnerability during the fetal period
about 5% of all fetuses are aborted spontaneously (stillborn) much more common in poorer nations
vulnerability during birth
only about 27% of all zygotes grow and survive to become living newborn babies
primitive streak
forms the neural tube 22 days after conception
the neural tube develops into the
CNS (brain and spinal column)
at the end of the embryonic period
the 23rd pair of chromosomes usually produce hormones that cause the reproductive organs to develop inside (ovaries) or outside (testicles and penis) the body
age of viability
is the age at which a fetus might survive outside the mothers uterus if specialized medical care is available
by full term, human brain growth
is so extensive that the cortex has become folded and wrinkled
fontanels
are areas on the top of newborn head where the skull bones have not yet fused. Fontanels enable the fetal head to become narrower as it moves through the vagina during birth
why do about half of all zygotes have more or fewer than the intended 46 chromosomes?
most of them fail to duplicate, divide, differentiate, and implant
if an entire chromosome is added, that leads to
a recognizable syndrome
syndrome
is a cluster of distinct characteristics that tend to occur together
trisomy
is a condition where three chromosomes are at a particular location instead of 2
trisomy-21 is also referred to as
down syndrom
XXY is
Klinefelter syndrome
Klinefelter syndrome usually appears
males, where the usual male characteristics at puberty do not develop or grow, usually sterile
-language disabilities
XYY is
Jacobs Syndrome
Jacobs Syndrome characteristics
-males, typically tall
-the risk of intellectual impairment in language
XXX is
Triple X syndrome
Triple X syndrome characteristics
-females, tall appearance
-impaired in most intellectual skills
XO is
Turner syndrome, only one sex chromosome (X) is affected
Turner syndrome characteristics
-females are short, often “webbed” neck
-secondary sex characteristics do not develop
-learning disabilities
teratogen
anything from drugs, viruses, pollutants, malnutrition, and stress that can increase the risk of prenatal abnormalities and birth complications.
fetal alcohol syndrome
distorts the facial features of a child (especially in the eyes, ears, and upper lip)
preterm babies are born
two or more weeks early
small for gestational age explains
a baby whose birthweight is significantly lower than expected
consequences of low birthweight
-rates of cognitive, visual, and heearing impairments increase
-toddlers may cry more often, pay attention less and disobey more
cesarean section
is a surgical procedure in which the fetus is removed through incisions in the abdomen and uterus, instead of being pushed by contractions through vagina
vaginal deliveries provide
a beneficial microbiome
kangaroo care
the newborn lies between the mothers breasts, skin to skin, listening to her heartbeat and feeling her body heat
couvade
fathers can feel 8 or more of the possible symptoms in the final 3 months of pregnancy
crying is important in babies for
clearing lungs and drawing attention to their needs
reflexes that maintain oxygen supply
-breathing reflex
-reflexive hiccups and sneezes
-thrashing (can take something off your mouth that can obstruct breathing)
reflexes that maintain constant body temperature
-crying
-shivering
-tucking legs close to body
-pushing away blankets when its hot
reflexes that manage feeding
-sucking
-rooting (when you touch their cheek and they move their mouth toward your finger)
-spitting up
reflexes that are not necessary for survival can still
signify state of brain and body functions
examples of reflexes that are not necessary for survival
-babinski reflex (fanned toes)
-stepping reflex (can motion stepping when stood up)
-palmar grasping reflex (gripping something when you put something in their hand)
-moro reflex (if the baby feels their body dropping, they will fan their arms out and try to hag on to something to not fall)
avg body weight for infants is
about 28 pounds, 4x their birth weight in just two years
2 of te main functions of infants are
eating and sleeping
newborns should be sleeping
15-17 hours a day, in 1-3 hour segments
newborns have a high proportion of __ sleep
REM; which is crucial for retaining information from your day and processing it
head-sparing
is a biological mechanism that protects the brain when malnutrition isrupts body growth
dendrite
fibers that extend from a neuron and receives electrochemical impulses transmitted from other neurons via their axons
synapses
intersection between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of other neurons
neurotransmitter
brain chemical that carries information from the axon of a sending neuron to the dendrites of a receiving neuron
why does synaptic growth become extremely dense at 2, then decrease by half as we age?
we lose half of that in the frontal cortex because you are becoming more efficient
methods for detecting infant perception
-habituation
-violation of expectations
-preference
-visual cliff
-high amplitude sucking
example of habituation
video: the baby first sees the rattle and looks for a long time, then she is shown the same rattle over and over again and gets used to it= looks less (habituation), when she is shown a new rattle, she looks again for a long time (dishabituation)
intermodal perception
incorporating information from more than 1 sense
intermodal perception: study
-very young infants link sight and sound
-when 2 videos are presented simultaneously, infants prefer to watch the images that correspond to the sounds they are hearing (4 mos)
-at 5 months, infants can associate facial expressions with emotion in voices as well
sight and touch in late infancy
infants can tell that their visual information and tactile information are not what they anticipated
gross motor skills
every basic motor skill develops over the first 2 years of life
cephalocaudal
head-down, this is one direction in which the order of motor development happens
sequence of gross motor skills
-sitting unsupported
-standing, holding on
-crawling
-standing, not holding on
-walking well
-walking backward
-running
-jumping up
fine motor skills
physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin
-shaped by culture and opportunity
sequence of fine motor skills
-grasping rattle
-reaching to hold object
-thumb-and-finger grasping
-stacking two blocks
-imitating vertical line
intellectual growth qualities by the 1st year of life
-memory is robust
-language comprehension and production via words or gestures
-infants engage in deliberate acts and behaviors to elicit responses
assimilation
types of adaptation in which new experiences are interpreted to fit into, or assimilate, with old ideas
-e.g: you have a dog at home, and you grow to understand that dogs have the same qualities. Now you are not in your home, and you see another dog that has different qualities than your dog, but you assume correctly that it is a dog as well
accomodation
type of adaptation in which old ideas are restructured to include, or accommodate, new experiences.
-e.g: same scenario, except you wrongly label a pet cat as a pet dog. Now, you have to shift your definition of what dogs are to correctly define and differentiate animals
sensorimotor intelligence
Piagets term for the way infants think-by using their senses and motor skills-during the first period of cognitive development.
-understanding through action
sensorimotor intelligence:
schemes/schemata
“units” of knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects, actions, and abstract concepts
-e.g: sucking (if something is on my lips, i should suck it so I can gain more information)
-e.g: everyone knows generally what to expect when dining at a restaurant
mental representations
mental imagery of something not present
-if an infant tried to bring their primary caregiver to mind and they were not right in front of them, they wouldnt be able to
-out of sight out of mind
deferred imitation study
-“teacher infant” shows the “student infant” an action they have never seen before with an object, then when the object is placed in front of them, it is studied whether or not they have the ability to do deferred imitation
-this recall is happening later, not at the same time
modification of reflexes
birth to 1 month
modification of reflexes are
-reflexes that lead to learning
-ability to modify reflexes, adapt to the environment
primary circular reactions happens between
1-4 months
primary circular reactions
developing the ability to repeat things that you find enjoyable actions using own body
-used as entertainment
-e.g: moving your arms and your hand lands in your mouth, you repeat that action because it is enjoyable to you
-indicates egocentricity
secondary circular reactions happens between
4-8 months
secondary circular reactions
-repetitive actions with objects
-discovers movements outside of the self
no object permanence: out of sight is out of mind
combination of secondary circular reactions happens between
8-12 months
combination of secondary circular reactions characteristics
-relatively fragile mental representations
-have object permanence, but make A-not-B error
A-not-B error example
-infants can now identify where the object is hidden when shown hiding spot, but when moved to another spot, they cant find it again
-both locations are RIGHT in front of baby, but they still cant find it
tertiary circular reactions happens between
12-18 months
tertiary circular reactions characteristics
-little scientist
-explore uses of objects; scientific exploration
-intrinsic curiosity about workings of the world
beginning of mental representation happens between
18-24 months
beginning of mental representation characteristics
-deferred imitation
-can now complete A-not-B with displacement
Why is Piaget so important (positive)
-careful observation of child cognition at each stage; inspired future research
-underestimation of age at which accomplishments occurred (object permanence, deferred imitation)
-sensory and motor ability emphasis limited understanding of early child cognition
Piaget: criti
-all of these stages can be manifest much earlier than Piaget estimated
early development: memory
-piaget: no mental representation, they could not remember anything
-now we know that memory occurs BEFORE birth
Rovee-Collier’s mobile paradigm
-tie a ribbon from a mobile to an infants foot
-train the infant to move their foot to make the mobile move
-let the kicking extinguish
-she wanted to see how quickly they can relearn this action
Rovee-Collier findings
-infants as young as 2 months retain up to 48 hours
-retention period increases with age (e.g. weeks or months)
-by the time they are 6 months old, they can remember for up to 3 week
recognition memory
is the memory studied with infants
early recall is also demonstrated through
is searching for hidden objects at about 9 months
deferred imitation can actually appear as early as
9 months, not 24 according to Piaget
language: the universal sequence
-listening and responding
-babbling
-first words
-verbs and nouns
-putting words together
preverbal developments
paying attention to speech; intonation and rhythm
-especially interested in “motherese” or “infant-directed speech”
-preverbal infants respond to speech more than sounds
categorical speech perception
in the first few months of life infants can make sound discriminations in all languages and lose this ability as they specialize
babbling
is characterized by indiscriminate utterance of speech sounds, often repeated syllables
-begins around 4-6 months of age
-varies and sounds different depending on language
one-word utterances
-first words emerge as early as 9 months and usually resemble babbling: “mama,” “dada” not true words
holophrases
object names may be used to communicate many meanings
e.g: if a cup of milk spills, an infant may point at it and say “milk!”
true first words usually emerge around
12 months of age, and are typically nouns
naming explosion/vocabulary spurt
around 18 months, children have a sudden burst in language learning
-first 50 words are usually important people, food, relating to their environment
two-word utterances emerge around
18 months
two-word utterances: telegraphic speech
like a telegram, they only include only essential meaning words
semantics: two-word utterances
two-word utterances begin to convey meaning instead of just labels
grammar: two-word utterances
unclear whether children use grammar in two-word utterances
early development language
many theorists argue that language learning has some innate component, aka nativism
nativism
-language learning is universal
-we seem to innately make human speech sounds
-we intuitively attend to human speech sounds
-we go through many of the same stages of language development around the same time, regardless of the language spoken and other environmental input
-there is a critical period for learning language
theory one: learning approach
-infants need to be explicitly taught to learn a language
-B.F Skinner noticed that spontaneous babbling is usually reinforced (talking back to babies with babbling)
-parents are expert teachers, and other caregivers help them teach their children to speak
-word repetition helps
-well-taught infants become well-spoken childrent
theory 2: social interaction approache
social interaction fosters infant language
-infants communicate because humans have evolved as social beings
-each culture has practices that futher social interaction, including talking
-social impulses, not explicit teaching, lead infants to learn language
theory three: infant self-teaching approach
infants teach themselves
-language learning is innate, adults need not teach it, nor is it a by-products of social interaction
theory three was theorized by
Chomsky
-language is too complex to teach
language acquisition device
allows children to derive the rules of grammar quickly and effectively from the speech they hear every day
three interacting elements underlying motor skills
muscle strength, brain maturation, practice
all of the sensations and motor skills further three goals
social interaction, comfort/wellbeing, learning
experience-expectant growth
brains expect experiences, like eating, development suffers without him
experience-dependent growth
neurological connections await experiences that vary by culture
implicit memory
memory for movement, emotions, or thoughts that are not put into words
explicit memory
depends on language
