exam 2- lifespan Flashcards
the average child knows about ___ words at age 2, and more than ____ on average by age 6
500; 10,000
early childhood is between the ages of
2-6 yrs
body changes in early childhood
-weight and height increases
-avg bmi is lower at 5 and 6 than at any other time in life
-children become slimmer as the lower body lengthens
-center of gravity moves from breastbone down to the belly button
during each year in early childhood, well-nourished children will
gain around 4 1/2 lbs and 3 inches
obesity among young children
-as family income decreases, obesity increases due to poor nutrition= reduces immunity and increasing illness
tooth decay correlates with
obesity
c section births triple the risk of
food allergies
by age 2, a childs brain weighs
75% of what it will in adult hood
by age 6, the brain reaches
90% of adult weight
from ages 2-6, maturation to the pfc benefits:
-sleep: becomes more regular
-emotions become more nuanced and responsive
-temper tantrums decrease or subside
-uncontrollable laughter and tears are less common
myelin is
a fatty coating the axons that protects and speeds signals between neurons. This helps the network connection between the two hemispheres
the brain is divided into two halves called
hemispheres
the corpus callosum is a
long, thick band of axons that myelinates and grows particularly rapidly in early childhood
the hemispheres are connected by the
corpus callosum
preoperational intelligence is Piaget’s
second of the four periods of cognitive development
preoperational children are no longer limited by
their senses and motor abilities
preoperational though: ages 2-7 characteristics
-children think in symbolic thought: an object or a word can stand for something else, including something out of sight of imagined.
-example: a child might pick up a stick and pretend it is a sword
rapid acquisition of vocabulary is a dramatic example of
symbolic thought
animism (preoperational thinking)
the belief that natural objects (sun or clouds) are alive and that nonhuman animals have the same characteristics as the child
obstacles to logic (preoperational) (there are 5)
centration: young child focuses (centers) on one idea, excluding all others
-ex: dad is a father, but not a brother because that is not his role
egocentrism: young childs tendency to think about the world entirely from their own personal perspective
-ex: gifting his mom a toy he really likes because he believes she will like it too
focus on appearance: ignores all attributes that are not apparent
-ex: a girl given a short haircut may think she is now a boy
static reasoning: young child thinks that nothing changes; whatever is now has always been and always will be
-ex: child cannot imagine his parents as children
irreversibility: thinks that nothing can be undone; a thing cannot be restored to the way it was before a change occured
-ex: knocking down blocks makes the child sad because they think it cant go back to a tower
conservation and logic: preoperational
conservation is the principle stating that the amount of a substance remains the same when its appearance changes
ex: there are two equal lines of checkers, the adult spaces one line out to make it appear longer. when asked which has more checkers, most children before the age of 6 pick the longer one
young children fail to understand conservation because
they focus (center) on what they see (appearance), noticing only the immediate (static) condition. They do not realize they could push the checkers closer and make both lines the same length again (irreversibility)
examples of lack of reasoning: lying
young children, when given a scenario where they were asked if someone doing something bad lies, can only focus on one aspect of the event. for example, if the person stole, but told the truth that he stole, they would still say he lied because they focused on the bad act:
bad acts= lies
good acts= truth
limitations of piagets theory
age of skill acquisition often younger than Piaget said
alternate explanations for development:
-social interactions and cultural experiences critical to advance development
-children gradually build knowledge, they don’t go through different qualitative stages
Vygotsky believed that cognitive development
was embedded in the social context at every age. He stressed that children are curious, observing and thinking about everything they see
According to Vygotsky, children seek answers from
a mentor, who might be a teacher, peer, parent, or stranger
for children, mentors provide
guidance by:
-presenting challenges
-providing guidance as knowledgeable sources
-offer assistance without taking over
-add crucial information
-encourage motivation
Vygotsky believed that all individuals learn within their
zone of proximal development, an intellectual arena in which new ideas and skills that children are close to mastering but cannot demonstrate independently
yt example of scaffolding and zone of proximal development
-girl was asked to count the blue pieces of a puzzle, when she counted them on her own, she counted 11 by just touching them.
-her dad (mentor) suggested she count them by separating them from the rest of the colors, she counted 12.
she is able to count accurately how many blue pieces they are with her mentor helping her through the zone of proximal development
scaffolding
-temporary support to help children learn
-typically adults, but can be anyone such as peers
Vygotsky says this metaphorical scaffold helps children take the next step within their developmental zone
when providing scaffolding, a mentor
does not make the task easier but instead makes the learners job easier by giving the child max support in the beginning stages and then gradually withdrawing this support as the childs mastery of a new skill increases
episodic memory
memory based of episodes placed in time
-what i had for lunch today
autobiographical memory is a subtype of
episodic memory
autobiographical memory
is a memory of personally significant events, placed in time, important for defining oneself
-emerges gradually across preschool years
through interactions with others, children learn
-what is important
-how to organize memories
-how to recount experiences (tell the story)
childrens theories: theory-theory
children attempt to explain everything they see and hear. they ask questions, develop hypotheses, gather data, draw conclusions
theory of mind
-persons theory of what other people might be thinking
-understanding that others can have different thoughts and knowledge
-emergent ability, slow to develop but typically beginning in most children at about age 4
-can be seen when young children try to escape punishment by lying
executive function
is a cognitive ability that is developing at age 2 and that continues to improve throughout life
-predicts childs later academic achievement
executive function protects adolescents from
-destructive emotional outbursts
-promotes coping skills in adulthood
-forestalls death in old age
three aspects of executive function
- memory
- inhibition
- flexibility
early childhood is a sensitive period to
master vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation
fast mapping
early preschool year children can pick up context
-can learn after single exposure
-social-pragmatic cues help infer meaning indirectly (eye gaze)
fast mapping example
experimenters taught children a novel word (made up word for a color) and asked the 3 year old can inder the meaning of a new word, “chromium,” when they were asked to bring the “chromium” tray, not the red one. half of the children added chromium to their lexicon; remembered it 6-10 weeks later, and remembered it in different contexts
fast mapping in deaf and hard of hearing children
- direct reference
- novel mapping
fast mapping in deaf and hard of hearing children- direct reference
explicit teaching- tell children 3 times what novel objects are (cherry pitter, but used a novel, nonsense word), and tested whether or not they know the name
fast mapping in deaf and hard of hearing children-novel mapping
have children play with 4 objects, 3 familiar, 1 novel; asked where the familiar objects are, then ask where a cup is (they know what a cup is/looks like), then asked where the “dax” is. children used context to find cherry pitter
Do DHH children fast map
yes, more often than not. They are most likely to utilize direct reference plus novel mapping combined
Does fast-mapping help DHH learn vocabulary
yes, novel mappers have a larger vocabulary compared to slow word learners and rapid word learners
slow word learners lacked
exposure to consistent language input or had other learning problems (DHH children with hearing parents or in speech only schools)
Mappers are more likely to be exposed to
consistent language input (DHH children with DHH or effortful signig parents or in simultaneous communication schools)
grammar of language
structures, techniques, and rules that communicate meaning
overregularization
-application of rules of grammar even when exceptions occur
-makes language seem more “regular” than it actually is
-e.g.: I runned over here
-a change from before, mirroring adults grammar, now trying to make sense of the world on their own
pragmatic
-practical use of language, adjusting communication to audience and context
(you speak differently to an adult than you would a baby) young kids are learning this too. e.g. pretend play
-difficult aspect of language
-demonstrated through role playing
children do not come into the world knowing grammar, however
they come into the world ready to learn grammar
correcting errors in grammar
parents tend to not correct children when they say things wrong, and it doesnt seem to help when parents correct them, because they do not hear the difference
does bilingualism confuse children?
no
code mixing is
mixing words from two languages in the same sentence
are bilingual children more likely to have language delays?
-for vocabulary and common language, yes
-for total conceptual vocabulary across languages, no. they are slightly ahead of monolingual kids
bilingual children are slightly more advanced in
-slightly more advanced in theory of mind tasks
-a little better in understanding others perspectives, desires
-enhanced sensitivity to some aspects of communication
-helps with travel, employment, maintaining connection to family, history
social-emotional development is the process by which children
become integrated into the larger society and differentiated as distinctive individuals
-how children learn standards, rules, knowledge of society
-how children develop their own unique patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving
emotional competence
understanding, expressing, and regulating one’s feelings, and recognizing emotions in others
-essential to mental health and self-control
-low competence predicts a host of problems like aggressiveness and difficulties with peers
emotional regulation is
the ability to control expression and experience of emotion
-rudimentary forms early in development
-heavily dependent upon others for help
emotional regulation changes in childhood:
-number and duration of emotional outbursts decrease
-heavily influenced by adults (scaffolding) by:
–providing comfort
–labeling emotions
–directing attention toward or away the emotion
emerging regulation strategies
behavior strategies: change emotion expression or what is happening “now” via behaviors
-may or may not change feelings inside
metacognitive strategies: changing feelings so that emotion experience is different
-change thoughts and feelings away so that negative emotions go away, changing a goal
according to Piaget, can 5-6 y/o’s use metacognitive strategies to change their emotions?
no due to static reasoning and irreversibility
study suggests that 5-6 year olds (Quas et al.)
-can describe experiences that made them feel mad/sad/afraid (behavioral)
-explain what they did to make the feelings go away (metacognitive)
emotions and gender in early childhood
-by age 2 1/2, girls express and talk more about most emotions
-boys display anger and aggression
-girls emotional expressions are more appropriate to the situation
why are there gender differences in early childhood? (theories)
bio theories: chromosomes, hormones
cognitive theories: schemas, knowledge
social learning theories
cognitive theories of gender differences in early childhood (stages)
stages
-gender “identity”: im a girl at age 2
-gender “stability:” girls grow up to be mommies at age 4
-gender “constancy:” i will always be a girl at age 7
children also create schemas and use them as a guide: what girls and boys are/do, and engage in those activities
social learning theories
modeling, imitation, rewards
welch-ross study
-read 4-8 year olds stories
-tested their memory of the stories
-one group was told the stories with gender consistency, the other was told the story with gender inconsistency
results: those who were told the gender consistent story made less gender-based errors because it followed their schema
gender socialization: sources of influence
- reinforcement/criticism:
-parents: “big boys dont cry”
-peers: criticize boys for feminine behavior - modeling/imitation:
-siblings: children with older sisters= more feminine, children with older brothers= more masculine
-children whose moms work outside the home hold less gender stereotypic beliefs and girls have higher career aspirations
gender differences: cognition
-classic view: girls are more skilled in verbal tasks, episodic memory; boys are more skilled in numeric, spatial, and mental rotation task
today, SAT scores show that math is higher in boys than in girls, however, girls get consistently higher grades starting early in school. The difference in SAT scores is tiny
what happens when parents dont scaffold emotional competence?
-maltreatment
–parents may not help children understand emotional situations, dont model effective regulation strategies resulting in lower emotional competence:
-hyper-sensitivity to others emotional displays
-over-reacting with hostility and aggression
-difficulty understanding others emotions
eriksons third developmental stage
initiative vs guilt: initiative includes something new, and depending on what happens after that, children feel proud or guilty
intrinsic motivation
arises from within, when people do something for the joy of doing it
-all of eriksons psychosocial needs are intrinsic
extrinsic motivation
comes from outside the person, external praise or other reinforcement
middle childhood period
6-11 yrs
healthy time during middle childhood due to
-immunizations
-less lethal accidents and fatal illnesses
-better health habits
-specialized programs
-improved social health
the average child during middle childhood grows
2 inches and gains 5 pounds per year
brain development in middle childhood
-maturing corpus callosum enables balance and improved handedness
-myelination speeds up thoughts and behaviors
-developing pfc allows better control processes
childhood obesity
-obese children tend to be more depressed and have fewer friends
-increased exercise is important to prevent and decrease weight
-calorically dense snacks can be the cause
-many 6-11 y/o’s eat too much, exercise too little
-excessive weight contributes to future health risks, avg. achievement decreases, self-esteem decreases, and loneliness
what causes childhood obesity?
genetic influences: dozens of genes affect weight by influencing activity level, hunger, food preference, body type and metabolism
parenting practices that increase obesity
infants: no breast feeding and solid foods before 4 months
preschoolers: bedroom tv watching and soda consumption
schoolagers: insufficient sleep, extensive screen time, little active play
asthma in middle childhood
asthma is a chronic disorder that makes breathing difficult.
-childs most serious problem related to asthma is frequent absence from school.
-absence impeded learning and friendships
hygiene hypothesis
children may be overprotected from viruses and bacteria, especially in modern nations. parents prevent exposure to minor infections, germs and pets that would strengthen the child’s immunity, preventing many allergic reactions
what Piaget stage are children in in middle childhood
concrete operational thought: Piaget’s term for the ability to reason logically about direct experiences and perceptions
classification of concrete operational thought
logical principle that things can be organized into groups (or categories) according to some characteristic they have in common
classification: class inclusion
what gets included at a given level of a category
concrete operation thought: seriation
things can be arranged in a series, crucial for understanding the number sequence
cognition in middle childhood: Vygotsky
education occurs everywhere and knowledge is acquired from social context
-instruction is essential
-guiding each child through the zone of proximal development is crucial
cognition and Vygotsky: study of reading and math ability in school-aged children found that
high scoring children had had 3 sources of cognitive stimulation:
their families: parents read to them daily
preschool programs: variety of learning
first grade: emphasis on literacy, individuals
–most important roles of teachers is to help children to focus
benefits of physical activity
-improves physical, emotional, and mental health
-academic achievement improved due to better cerebral blood flow and more neurotransmitters; better mood and energy
children can benefit from exercise in their
neighborhoods, schools, and sports leagues
problems with accessibility to exercise
-finding play places may be difficult
-modern life challenges neighborhood play
-indoor activities often replace outdoor play
-economic barriers may limit participation in league and club activities
-time for school activities and recess in reduced in many schools
knowledge base
a body of knowledge in a particular area that makes it easier to master new information in that area
-factors influencing knowledge base:
–experience
–current opportunity
–personal motivation
information-processing perspective
thinking like a computer
-select relevant units of information
-analyze and connect
-express conclusions
sensory memory
component of the information processing system in which incoming stimulus information is stored for a split second to allow it to be precessed (sensory register).
working memory
component of the information processing system in which current, conscious mental activity occurs (short-term memory)
long term memory
component of the information system in which virtually limitless amounts of information can be stored indefinitely
memory
-working memory improved gradualy markedly through processing
-culture differences are evident
-information from working memory is transferred to long term memory
-memory storage expands over childhood, but important for retrieval
flynn effect
each gen scores higher than their predecessor
-we’ve learned how to classify the world intellectually
-cognitive revolution: explosive growth in abstract thinking= does well on iq tests
-iq tests measure the ability to adapt
multiple intelligences: Gardner
each associated with a region of the brain
during middle childhood, children
drive for independence from parents expands the social world
self-concept in middle childhood
ideas about self that include intelligence, personality, abilities, gender, and ethnic background
middle childhood vs parents
relationship with parents is still crucial in this stage, extremely influential and still the primary attachment figures
11-12 year olds still say they prefer a ___ over ____ in anxiety-provoking situations
parent over peer
changes in attachment in middle childhood
-move from proximity to availability (prefer calling parent rather than them being physically close at all times)
-move from problem-solver to resource (parents no longer solve problem directly)
social comparison in middle childhood
involves tendency to assess one’s abilities, achievements, social status, and other attributes by measuring the against those of other people, especially peers
-children value the abilities they have and become more realistic
-recognition of prejudice and affirming pride in gender and background increases.
-self-concept becomes influenced by opinion of others, materialism, and superficial attributes
goals of middle childhood: erikson
industry vs inferiority
industry vs inferiority
tension between productivity and incompetence
-attempt to master culturally valued skills and develop a sense of themselves as either industrious or inferior, competent or incompetent
psychological maturation in middle childhood
-responsibility to perform specific chores
-manage a weekly allowance and activities
-complete homework
-attempt to conform to peers
-express preferences for after-school hours
-accept some responsibility for pets, younger children
-strive for independence from parents
cultural variation in middle childhood
-other cultures have different norms for competence and responsibilities (chores and household tasks are distributive)
-as a result, it does not lend the same “crisis” as it does in US households, where we do not usually let toddlers or children have these responsibilities
-not a crisis, just something one does
culture and self-esteem in middle childhood
-cultures and families differ in which attitudes and accomplishments they value
-emerging self-perception benefits academic and social competence
-it is important to not praise the end result, but the process and the effort. if you make them feel like effort doesnt matter if they fail, they wont want to try. This is an incremental versus entity concept of growth
incremental versus entity concept of growth- Dweck
growth mindset video predicts positive growth in children
traditional research findings suggest unrealistically high and unrealistically low self-esteem
-reduces effortful control= the amount you push yourself to be better
-may lead to lower achievement and increased aggression
-the goal is calibration
resilience
capacity to adapt well to significant adversity and to overcome serious stress
-resilience is dynamic-time in which someone is resilient depends, a positive adaptation to stress- needs to be something that is healthy and helps you get through
-adversity must be significant (not an everyday type of stressor
cumulative stress
-stress accumulates over time
-daily hassles can be more detrimental than isolated major stress
-social context is imperative: child soldiers, homeless children, separation after natural disaster
factors contributing to resilience
-childs interpretation of events (if they even see the event, etc)
-support of family and community
-personal strengths such a creativity and intelligence
-avoidance of parentification
parentification
when a child acts more like a parent than a child. this may occur if the actual parents do not act as caregivers, making a child feel responsible for the family
shared and nonshared environments
-genes affect half of more of the variance for almost every trait
-influence of shared environment shrinks with age
-effect of nonshared environment increases
family structure vs family function
-family structure is the legal and genetic relationships among relatives living in the same home (who lives with you)
-family function is the way a family works to meet the needs of its members; functions is more important than structure, but harder to measure
single parent family
more than half of US children will live ina single-parent home for at least a year
extended family structure
family consisting of parents, their children, and other relatives living in one household
polygamous family structure
family consisting of one man, several wives and the biological children of all wives
family function: during middle childhood, families help children by
-providing basic material necessities
-encouraging learning
-helping them develop self-respect
-nurturing friendships
-fostering harmony and stability
children and stability
-children value safety and stability
-stability is difficult in military families. caregivers are discouraged from making other changes in their life
divorce: cherlin findings
-US culture is conflicted; marriage and personal freedom are simultaneously wanted
-divorce allows adults personal freedom, but can have negative impacts on children
-children are harmed by divorce, cohabitation, and single and step parenthood due to lack of stability
function of nuclear families
-generally function best
-on avg, we see better educational, social, cognitive, and behavioral child outcomes
-mate selection and income related to nuclear families and child well-being
-a lot of this is dependent on the success of parents relationship-parental alliance
-all of this can have positive effects that extend beyond childhood
other two parent families functioning
-adoptive and same-sex parent families: typically function well, often better than avg nuclear families
-stepparent families: some function well, stability is a challenge and parental alliance is harder to form
-skipped generation: generally lower income, more health problems, less stability
-single parents: on avg, functions less well, lower income and stability, increased stress, but benefit from community support
what are the two factors that increase the likelihood of dysfunction in every structure, ethnic group, and nation
-low income or poverty
-high conflict
many families experience both
Poverty: Family-stress model
any risk factor damages a family only if it increases the stress on that family
-adults’ stressful reaction to poverty is crucial in determining the effect on the children
-basically, poverty only truly affects the children if the adults in their life are emotionally burdended by it
-wealth: generally more income correlates with better family function
family trouble: conflict
family conflicts harms children, especially when adults fight ABOUT children
-fights are more common in stepfamilies, divorced families and extended families
-although genes have some effect, conflict itself is often the main influence on the childs wellbeing
peer group in middle childhood: culture of children
-particular habits, styles, and values that reflect the set of rules and rituals that characterize children as distinct from adult society
-fashion, language, peer culture
friendship and social acceptance in mid. childhood
-friendships become important because of social cognition and effortful control advance
-school-age children value personal friendship more than peer acceptance.
gender differences in friendships
-girls talk more and share secrets
-boys play more active games
children at this age have expectations of their friends
-demand more of their friends
-change friends less often
-become more upset when a friendship ends
-find it harder to make new friends
-seek friends who share their interests and values
popular children
particular qualities that make a child liked or disliked depends on culture, cohort, and sometimes the local region or school
-US children tend to favor outgoing, friendly, cooperative, well-liked, dominant, aggressive
unpopular children tropes:
- neglected, not rejected: neglected by peers, but not actively rejected (ignored but not shunned)
- aggressive-rejected children: disliked by peers because of antagonistic, confrontational behavior
- withdrawn-rejected children: disliked by peers because of their timid, withdrawn, and anxious behavior
bullying
repeated, systematic efforts to inflict harm through physical, verbal, or social attack on a weaker person
bully-victim
-someone who attacks others and who is attacked as well
-also called a provocative victim because he or she does things that elicit bullying, such as stealing a bully’s pencil
successful efforts to eliminate bullying
-the whole school must be involved, not just the identified bullies
-intervention is more effective in the earlier grades
-evaluation of results is critical
children’s moral values
children are able to:
-make moral judgments
-differentiate universal principles from conventional norms
influences on moral development
peer culture, personal experience, empathy
heinz dilemma
links to Kohlberg’s level of moral thought
the heinz dilemma showed Kohlberg’s levels of moral thought
preconventional moral reasoning: rewards and punishments (he’ll benefit from this to be with his wife)
conventional moral reasoning: social rules (if everyone does what they want, society will collapse)
postconventional moral reasoning: moral principles (lives are more important than compensation)
criticisms of Kohlberg
pros: child’s use of intellectual abilities to justify moral actions was correct
cons: culture and gender ignored; differences between child and adult morality not addressed
3 common values among 6-11 y/o’s
-protect your friends
-don’t tell adults what is happening
-don’t be too different from your peers
physical development in adolescence is greatly dependent on
puberty, although changes begin well before visible markers, first visible signs of puberty in girls is 10-11 and 11-12 in boys
-hypothalamus signals pituitary gland to release hormones
-age 8-9 in girls, 9-10 in boys
tanner stages
the stages in which the physical endpoints are used to determine what stage of puberty one is in (stage 1-5)
predictors of puberty onset: menarche
- genetics: differences in age of menarche
-identical twins get their period within 2.2 months
-sisters: 12.9 months apart
-unrelated girls: 18.6 months - where you live and in what time you live
-consistent decline from the 1800s (from 17 on avg to 11 in some countries today)
-3rd world countries are still declining
stress and puberty
chronic stress leads to earlier onset puberty; stress doesn’t need to be severe. even mild stress adds up:
-socially rejected
-unstable home
-change in family structure
-poverty
-death of a family member
weight and obesity: puberty
being underweight delays pubertal onset; being overweight predicts earlier puberty onset in girls
Kaplowitz; girls, BMI, and Tanner
girls who were age 6 and had already moved on to Tanner stage 2 had a very high BMI
for girls, early maturation is
overall bad:
-increases self-consciousness, depression
-increased risk-taking
-greater risk for teen pregnancy
-poorer academic outcomes
why is early maturation bad for girls?
-not fitting in with peers
-sexual attention before psychologically ready
-lack of knowledge: no knowledge about what is happening to you that you don’t understand
for boys, early maturation is
somewhat negative TODAY, (although historically it was thought to be a positive thing):
-shown to be more aggressive
-poor academic performance
-increased risk taking (alcohol, drugs)
why is early maturation bad for boys?
-increased attention: not sexual attention, but moreso what society believes you are able to partake in
-increased expectations of maturity
What happens in girls when they mature later?
short term: negative effects such as anxiety
long term: no effects (sometimes hints at positive effects)
What happens in boys when they mature later?
some negative effects:
-lower self concepts
-increased anxiety, depression
“on time” pubertal onset is critical
at a time of heightened awareness of and attention to social relationships
reactions to puberty
-97% of schools report providing basic information
-often in middle school, separate by gender, content highly variable
benefits to exposing children to puberty
-reduces negative reactions, fears
-increases post-puberty adjutment
Stubbs: Reactions to puberty
looking at 587 white girls, found that kids who were more knowledgeable about menarche were:
-less stressed at onset puberty
-reported to have more positive feelings about their
this also found that knowing the biology was less important than the emotional response and the pragmatics
cognitive changes equally dramatic (through less salient visually)
PFC: most “advanced” part of the brain, continues to develop across adolescence
-responsible for abstract thinking and analysis
-behavioral control
-rich connections to other regions develop over time
Piaget’s final stage is: formal operations
-begins around age 12
-abstract thought, hypothetical reasoning
-deductive reasoning
age-related findings across four studies of deductive reasoning abilities
deductive reasoning abilities increase with age; hits plateu at around age 16
if adolescents can think like adults around age 16, why do they make such bad decisions?
adolescents are all about context. cognition is there, but they are not very good at stopping making these decisions
Adolescents: cognition
-reward part of brain (excitement, pleasure) responds more strongly and quickly than inhibition part
-impulse control part of brain is not fully developed
-combination leads to high risk behavior, especially in situations where decisions are made quickly
risky behaviors (high stakes computer game)
studied between adolescents, youths, and adults
-asked participants whether they would engage in risky behavior (e.g. running a red light) when alone vs with friends
-adolescents are taking the highest risk when their friends are watching out of youths and adults
-found that even mice fall into the peer effect
