Lifespan Development Flashcards
The offspring of women who consume alcohol during pregnancy are most likely to have serious structural abnormalities involving the brain, heart, eyes, limbs and external genitalia when the woman drinks alcohol during which trimester?
first
most traits are ____, which means they are influenced by multiple genes,.
polygenic
child who is homozygous
has inherited the gene from both parents
a child who is heterozygous
has inherited the gene from only one parent
When a trait is due to a recessive gene, a child must be ______, with regard to that gene in order to display that trait.
homozygous
____ refers to a person’s genetic inheritance
genotype
_____ refers to a person’s observed characteristic (which are due to a combination of heredity and environment)
phenotype
Heredity accounts for only ____ % of variability for many characteristics
50
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological model
believed development involves interactions between the person and their environment
Ecological model: describes context in terms of 5 environmental systems:
1-microsystem: child’s immediate environment and relationships within the
home, school, etc
2- mesosytem: interactions between components of the microsystem;
EX: influence of family factors on the child’s behavior at school
3- exosystem: elements in the broader environment that affect the child’s
immediate environment (EX: parent’s workplace, school board, community
agencies, mass media)
4- macrosystem: overarching influences like cultural beliefs and practices,
economic conditions, political ideologies
5- chronosystem: environmental events that occur over a person’s lifespan
and impact them in ways that depend on their circumstances and and
developmental stage (EX: SES or immediate and long term effects of
change in family structure.
Rutter’s Indicators
accurate predictors of child psychopathology
1-severe marital discord
2- low SES
3- overcrowding/ large family size
4- parental criminality
5- maternal psychopathology
6- placement of the child outside the home
findings:
high risk children can be resilient and such negative effects are not irreversible if they receive fewer stressors following birth, had easy temperaments, and had support from a caregiver.
The contribution of heredity to an observed characteristic can be expressed in terms of heritability estimate, which indicates the extent to which phenotypes vary within groups as the result of differences in ______.
genotype
Research investigating the impact of early stress on development suggests that high-risk babies are less likely to have negative outcomes when babies experience fewer stressors following birth and have an easy temperament marked by a high degree of _______ and good communication skill.s
social responsivity
Research by Werner and Smith (1982)
Three types of genotype environment correlation have been proposed to explain how genetic and environmental factors combine to produce an individual’s attributes:
1_____
2_____
3_____
passive
evocative
active
Active genotype-environmental correlation is also known as ______ and occurs when kids seek out experiences that are consistent with their genetic predispositions,
niche-picking
In contrast to critical periods, _____ periods are more flexible and longer in duration.
sensitive
Birth defects are caused by many factors. PKU is due to the presence of a pair of ________.
recessive genes
Down Syndrome is caused by
an extra 21st chromosome
_____ Syndrome is caused by the presence of two or more X chromosomes along with a single Y chromosome.
Kleinfelter
_____ Syndrome is caused by a chromosomal deletion.
Prader-Willi
The critical period for teratogens varies from organ to organ, but, overall, exposure during the _____ stage is most likely to cause structural abnormalities.
embryonic
Alcohol consumption by a pregnant woman can cause _______, which encompasses a range of conditions that involves largely irreversible, physical, behavioral, and cognitive impairments.
fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)
Prenatal malnutrition is associated with a number of abnormalities, with severe ______ deficiency during the _____ trimester being especially detrimental for the developing brain.
protein
third
Prolonged _____ during the birth process can result in delayed motor and cognitive development, ID, and in severe cases, cerebral palsy.
anoxia
____ use in pregnant women increases the risk for spontaneous abortion and still birth, SIDS, low birthweight, an exaggerated startle response, and developmental delays.
cocaine
the most common symptoms of congenital CMV are some degree of _____, and impairments in ______.
intellectual disability
hearing and vision
Critical periods
are specific, predetermined periods of time during biological maturation when an organism is particularly sensitive to stimuli that can either have a positive or negative impact on development.
Sensitive periods
longer in duration that critical periods, and more flexible, and they are not tied as closely to chronological age or maturational stage.
Rutter (1985) studied the risk and protective factors that are associated with child psychopathology. His research found that which of the following places a child at greatest risk for behavioral problems?
Select one:
A. An accumulation of several risk factors
B.Maternal psychopathology
C.Severe neglect in early life
D.Exposure to discord and foster care placement
A. An accumulation of several risk factors
Rutter argued that the greater the number of risk factors a baby is exposed to, the greater the risk for negative outcomes. He concluded that the following six family risk factors are particularly accurate predictors of child psychopathology: severe marital discord, low socioeconomic status, overcrowding or large family size, parental criminality, maternal psychopathology, and the placement of a child outside the home.
The most common cause of cerebral palsy is:
brain injury early in life
Although it used to be accepted that oxygen deprivation at birth was the primary cause, it is now known that this is only one cause of the cases, and therefore the more general answer is best.
____________ during prenatal development is associated with miscarriage, stillbirth, and low birth weight and may result in suppression of the immune system, intellectual disability, and other serious problems.
Malnutrition
Malnutrition during prenatal development is associated with miscarriage, stillbirth, and low birth weight and may result in suppression of the immune system, intellectual disability, and other serious problems. Severe malnutrition in the third trimester (especially protein deficiency) is particularly detrimental for the developing brain and can lead to a reduced number of neurons, reduced myelination, and neurotransmitter abnormalities. A lack of folic acid during prenatal development can result in spina bifida or other neural tube defect.
A developmental psychologist investigating the influence of Bronfenbrenner’s mesosystem on child development will focus on:
Select one:
A.how children interact in social systems outside the home, such as a karate class
B.how blended families influence adjustment
C.the interaction of two or more systems in the child’s life
D.the influence of culture on development
C.the interaction of two or more systems in the child’s life
The mesosystem is a combination of two or more microsystems. For example, a student conference represents a mesosystem, as it is the interaction of the home and school microsystems.
During a “critical period:”
Select one:
A.there is a specific window of time in which a particular stage of development may occur.
B.certain conditions of development must be met.
C.certain biological or behavioral characteristics require appropriate exposure or stimulation in order to develop.
D.language development occurs through exposure and repetition.
C.certain biological or behavioral characteristics require appropriate exposure or stimulation in order to develop.
Correct
The symptoms of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS):
Select one:
A. can be alleviated by proper nutrition in the first few months following birth.
B. gradually improve during the first few years of life, although some behavioral symptoms may persist into adulthood.
C. that are behavioral become minimal by adolescence, but physical signs persist into adulthood.
D. are irreversible and persist into adulthood.
D. are irreversible and persist into adulthood.
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder is caused by prenatal exposure to alcohol and affects multiple areas of development. The severity of the symptoms of FASD depends on the degree of prenatal exposure to alcohol. However, regardless of their severity, most symptoms are irreversible.
Which of the following is useful for preventing the severe intellectual disability that can accompany phenylketonuria (PKU)?
Select one:
A. Diet management
B. Behavioral analysis and structured behavioral plan
C. Parental training to deal with the behavioral sequelae
D. Infusions to provide the missing enzymes for complete metabolism
A. Diet management
A low-protein diet is the main treatment for phenylketonuria (PKU). This is because people who have PKU lack an enzyme to properly process the amino acid phenylalanine, a part of protein. Phenylalanine is present in all protein foods and in some nonprotein foods, such as soda and artificial sweeteners. The neural and intellectual effects are the result of these metabolic issues.
Increasing age is accompanied by a number of changes in sensory and psychomotor functioning. As people age they:
experience an increase in reaction time
Most infants can be expected to take their first steps alone at about ____ months of age.
12
Results of the recent National Survey on Drug Use and Health found that adolescents are MOST likely to say they have used which of the following in the past month?
alcohol
The visual cues an infant uses to perceive depth arise in a predictable sequence. Which cue is the last to develop?
pictorial
At birth, the brain is only about ____% of its adult weight, following birth, by age 2, it reaches about ____% of its adult weight.
25
80
at birth, the _____ (part of the brain) is almost completely undeveloped and the _____ may not even be developed until early-mid 20s.
cerebral cortex
prefrontal cortex
the rapid growth of the brain from birth to 2 years old is due to an increase in the interconnections between neurons and the formation of ___ cells, which are responsible for the myelination of nerve fibers.
glial
The brain compensates for the atrophy of neurons in adulthood by forming new synaptic connections and creating new neurons in the ____ and possibly other areas of the brain. What is the name of this process?
hippocampus
neurogenesis
What are the 4 major reflexes of newborns?
Babinski: toes fan out and upward when soles of the feet are tickled
Rooting: turns head in the direction of touch applied to the cheek
Moro (startle): flings arms and legs outward and then toward the body in response to a loud noise or sudden loss of physical support
Stepping (walking): makes coordinated walking movement when held upright with feet touching flat surface
What are the optimal techniques used to study perception in newborns according to the child age:
1-4 months: high amplitude sucking
12 weeks +: reaching
5.5-12 months: head turning
broad age range: heart and respiration rate
dishabituation
occur when the infant’s responsivity increases following a stimulus
Of the senses, _____ is the least developed at birth
vision
Vision:
At birth, newborns see at _____ ft what normal adults see at about ______ ft. At _____ months, the infants visual capacity is very close to that of a normal adult.
20
200-400
6
What are the depth cues infants develop in relation to vision? In what order do they develop?
kinetic views
binocular cues
pictorial cues
Newborns prefer to look at ____ patterns and their preference for _____ increases with age.
high-contrast
more complex
Newborns prefer to look at faces by ______; and by _____ they prefer the face of their mother over an unfamiliar face of a woman.
2-5 days after birth
2 months
The fetus hears sounds in the uterus during ______
the last few months of development
Newborns are _____ sensitive to sounds intensity than adults.
only slightly less
Auditory localization
ability to orient toward the detection of a sound
__________ IS EVIDENT FOLLOWING BIRTH BUT SEEMS TO DISAPPEAR BETWEEN 2 AND 4 MONTHS ANS THEN IMPROVES DURING THE REST OF THE FIRST YEAR.
Auditory localization
At about ____ months of age, most children are able to pull themselves to standing while holding onto furniture
9-10
By ____ months, children take their first steps alone.
12
At around ____ months, about 50% of children use the toilet during the day.
24
By ____, most children exhibit a stable preference for the right or left hand.
4 years old
By ______, a child will ride the tricycle, dress and undress with simple clothing and is usually completely potty trained.
3 years old
By _____ months, a child shows increasingly good coordination, can sit alone without support, begins crawling and creeping.
8-9
At ____ months, the first teeth begin to appear
5-9 months
Gender differences in boys and girls in regard to motor development
in middle childhood, girls are more developed in terms of flexibility, agility, and balance whereas boys are more developed in strength and gross motors skills.
Most adults begin to notice some inability to focus on close objects (______) by age _____.
presbyopia
40
After age ____, most adults experience visual changes that interfere with daily life.
65
Many adults experience problems with hearing by age ___, this is more common in ____.
40, men in terms of not being able to hear higher frequencies.
One of the most consistent findings is that normal aging is accompanied by behavioral _____, which adversely affects performance on a variety of sensorimotor, perceptual, and cognitive tasks.
slowing
One of the best predictors for a child’s successful adjustment to chronic illness is _____ (especially level of ______).
illness severity
functional impairment
Survey results for 2013 indicate that, among youth 12-17 years old, 8.8% reported using _____ in the past month, while 11.6% reported using ____.
an illicit drug
alcohol
Surveys of older adults indicate that mean and women both report _____ as the primary reason for a lack of sexual activity.
physical health problems in men
the “gateway hypothesis”
abuse of illicit drugs by teens often begins with early use of gateway drugs (first tobacco and alcohol, and then marijuana), which is followed by the use of cocaine, meth and others.
According to Piaget, adaptation reflects two complementary processes: _____ involves incorporating new information into existing schemas, while ______ entails modifying existing schemas to incorporate new information.
Assimilation
Accomodation
The 4 stages of development According to Piaget
Sensorimotor: development depends on the sensory information provided by objects and other people and actions that can be performed upon them.
-make believe play
-representational thought
object permanence
-deferred imitation
Pre-operational: charcaterized by limitations such as the tendency to attribute human characteristics to inanimate objects
Concrete Operational: children are capable of conservation, which depends on the operations of reversibility and decentration
Formal Operational: characterized by the ability to think abstractly and engage in hypothetico-deductive reasoning.
-beginning involves renewed ego centrism, which is reflected in two phenomena (Elkind), the personal fable and imaginary audience.
Children in the Pre-operational stage exhibit _____, which reflects an incomplete understanding of cause and effect.
precausal (transductive) reasoning
Children in the _____ stage of development by Piaget, struggle with irreversibility. They cannot understand that when a liquid being poured from a short, fat glass into a tall slim one that there isn’t more liquid int he slim one.
pre-operational
_____ is the ability to understand that physical characteristics of an object remain the same, even when the outward appearance of that object changes. This depends on the operations of decentration and irreversibility.
children begin to understand this in Piaget’s ____ stage of development.
conservation
concrete-operational
_____ is a term used to describe the gradual acquisition of conservation abilities and other abilities within a specific stage of development. This is prevalent in Piaget’s ____ stage of development.
horizontal decalage
concrete-operational
Elkind extended Piaget’s work by extending specific characteristics of _______, which included _____ (the belief that one is unique and not subject to the natural laws that govern others) and ____ (the belief that one is always the center of attention).
adolescent egocentrism
personal fable
imaginary audience
What are the age ranges in Piaget’s developmental stages?
Sensorimotor (birth-2yrs)
Pre-operational (2-7yrs)
Concrete operational (7-11/12yrs)
Formal Operational (11 or 12+yrs)
In Piaget’s ____ stage, substage ______, the infant develops representational (symbolic) thought.
sensorimotor
6
Representational (symbolic) thought)
involves forming internal representations that allow the infant to think about absent objects and past events and to anticipate the consequences of action.
What are the substages of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage of development?
1- Reflexive schemes (birth-1 month): infant exercises their reflexes
2- Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months): infant attempts to repeat pleasurable events involving their own body (i.e. thumb sucking)
3- Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months): infants attempts to reproduce pleasurable events following other people or objects (e.g. shakes rattle)
4-Coordinated Secondary Circular Reactions (8-12 months): infant combines secondary circular reactions (schemes) into new, more complex action sequences (uncovers an object and then grasps it)
5- Tertiary Circular (18-24 months): infant deliberately varies an action or action sequence to discover the consequences of doing so (e.g drops a toy from different heights)
6- Mental Representation (18-24 months): infant develops representational symbolic thought.
In contrast to Piagetians, information processing theorists focus on development within specific
cognitive domains (such as attention, memory, and reasoning)
Neo-Piagetian theorists consider ________ across domains and context as a normal part of development
unevenness in development
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
views all learning as socially mediated and proposes that cognitive development is first interpersonal and then intrapersonal.
cognitive development is facilitated when instruction and other environmental demands fall within the child’s zone of proximal development
symbolic make believe play provides children with a zone of proximal development that enables the child to practice behaviors in situations that require less precision and accuracy than would be required in reality
zone of proximal development
the discrepancy between a child’s current developmental level (level where they can function independently) and the level of development just beyond their current level but can be reached when an adult or peer provides scaffolding
Vygotsky’s view on symbolic play
symbolic make believe play provides children with a zone of proximal development that enables the child to practice behaviors in situations that require less precision and accuracy than would be required in reality
Difference between how Piaget and Vygotsky viewed children speaking aloud to themselves
V described it as self-directed speech that helps them regulate and organize their behaviors.
Piaget saw it as egocentric
Vygotsky’s influence on educational strategies can be seen in ___________ method. Define that.
Brown and Palinscar’s (1989) Reciprocal Teaching Method
it emphasized a child’s ability to learn through social interaction and has been applied to reading instruction. Teacher initially leads the instruction and models appropriate kinds of questions to ask. Students will eventually take over the teacher’s role and take turns asking similar types of questions.
Theory of Mind (Lewis and Mitchel, 2014)
What is the development like? Ages?
refers tot he ability to make inferences about another’s representational states and to predict behavior accordingly.
It develops gradually during childhood, with major changes usually happening at 2-3, 4-5, and after age 5.
What happens in the different age ranges in the theory of mind?
2-3: become aware of other people’s mental states and begin to understand that people have different perceptions, emotions, and desires that influence their actions.
4-5: understand that another person’s thoughts may be false and that people may act on false beliefs
5+: realize people’s actions are not always consistent with their true thoughts/ feelings. Understand that people interpret (rather than record) events and that different people may interpret the same event differently. As they move into early teens, they realize people can have mixed feelings about others and events.
Research comparing the memory of children and adults suggests that, until about age ____, children do not regularly use rehearsal, elaboration, and other memory strategies.
9 or 10
improvements on cognitive tasks that occur as children get older are due, in part to improvements in _____ (thinking about thinking)
metacognition
Among older adults, ____ memory shows greatest age-related decline which seems to be due to primarily problems related to the use of effective _____
recent-longterm (secondary)
encoding
The ability of adults to have better recall of autobiographical events that occurred between the ages of 10-30 is referred to as the _____
reminiscence bump
Greater recall of recent events (events that occurred in the last 20 years) is referred to as
retention function
Adults are usually able to recall very few of the events they experienced prior to age _____, this is possible due to _____.
3-4
childhood amnesia
why does childhood amnesia occur?
possibly bc parts of the brain essential for memory (especially the PF lobes) are not sufficiently developed prior to 4.
possibly bc of language needed to encode
reminiscence bump
adults aged 50 and older tend to have the best recall for more recent
events followed by events that occurred in adolescence and young
adulthood
* the better recall for events that occurred between the ages of 10 and 30 is
referred to as the reminiscence bump
age-related declines in working memory are due to
reduced processing efficiency
Age-related decrements in memory are less apparent on ___ tasks than on ___ tasks.
familiar
unfamiliar laboratory
According to Piaget, the source of motivation for cognitive development is:
intrinsic
As defined by Piaget, assimilation involves:
incorporating new knowledge into existing schemas
According to Piaget, centration, or the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation or object while ignoring all others, is characteristic of the _________ stage.
pre-operational
Which of the following best describes changes in memory that are associated with age progression?
Select one:
A.Reduced processing efficiency
B.Limited benefit of memory strategy training
C.Semantic memory loss
D.Memory loss is irreversible
A.Reduced processing efficiency
The understanding that another person’s thoughts may be false (inaccurate) and that people may act on their false beliefs. usually occurs between the ages of:
4-5
Researchers have found that newborns exhibit three types of cries – the hungry (basic) cry, the angry cry, and the pain cry. They have also found that, by _____ months of age, most infants begin to emit a “fussy” or irregular cry.
2
For most children, babbling narrows to the sounds of the child’s native language between _____ months of age.
9-14
Which of the following is an example of a morpheme:
Select one:
A. walking
B. th
C. un
D. Iest
C. Un
A young child’s ability to narrow the possible meaning of new words is known as which of the following?
syntactic bootstrapping
Nativist Theories of language development
propose that people have an innate capacity for language and emphasize universal patterns of language development
* according to Chomsky, people have an innate language device (LAD)
Behaviorist Theories of language development
propose that language is acquired through imitation and reinforcement
Interactionist Theories of language development
view language development as the result of interactions between biological and environmental factors
- child-directed speech involves talking in simple sentences at a slow pace,
speaking in a high-pitched voice, and frequently asking questions and repeating
words
child-directed speech
an aspect of interactionist theory of language development
involves talking in simple sentences at a slow pace,
speaking in a high-pitched voice, and frequently asking questions and repeating
words
Adults often respond to a child’s communications with a(n) _______ (adds to the child’s statement but retains the child’s word order) or a(n) ______ (adds information to the child’s statement).
extension
expansion
semantic bootstrapping
refers to the child’s use of their knowledge of the meaning of words to infer the syntactical (grammatical) category
syntactic bootstrapping
a child’s use of syntactical knowledge to learn the meaning of NEW words
prosodic bootstrapping
using the prosody (pitch, rhythm, etc) of an utterance to make inferences about syntax
morphological bootstrapping
refers to the use of knowledge about morphemes to deduce the syntax or meaning of a word (deducing that a word is an action word -verb- because it ends with “ing”).
surface structure
Chomsky-refers to the organization of words, phrases, and sentences
deep structure
refers to the underlying meaning of sentences
Chomsky’s notion of informational grammar
speaking involves transforming deep structure (meaning) into surface structure (grammatical sentences), while listening entails transforming surface structure into its deep structure.
phonemes
smallest units of sound that are understood in a language
english language has 45 phonemes
ex: b, p, f, v
morphemes
smallest units of sound that convey meaning
are made up of one or more phonemes
ex: do, go, prefixes and suffixes-ing, ed, un
by _____, a baby will produce a “fussy cry”
1-2 months
of the 4 cries a baby produces, the ___ cry produces the strongest response from parents
pain
By _____ babies will produce a “cooing” sound
8 weeks
By _____, babies will begin to babble
4 months
By ____, children will engage in echolalia and followed by expressive jargon (vocalizations that sound like sentences but have no meaning)
9 months
By about _____, children will speak their first word
10-15 months
by about ______, children will speak about 50 words.
18 months-2 yrs
By _____ children use single words that express whole phrases and sentences
1-2 yrs old
holophrastic speech
involves using gestures and intonation to turn a single word into a comment, question, or command
By _____, children exhibit telegraphic speech, they string two or more words together to make a sentence (“me go”).
18-24 months
telegraphic speech
string two or more words together to make a sentence (“me go”).
By _____, prepositions and pronouns are added and the child has about 300-400 words
27 months
at about ____, children begin to exhibit a rapid growth in vocabulary, with the fastest rate of growth occurring between _______
18 months
30-36 months
At ______, a child’s vocabulary includes about 1000 words and their sentences contain 3-4 words
36 months
The period from ______ of age is marked by increasing sentence complexity, grammatical accuracy, and continued vocabulary growth with about 50 new words acquired each month
2.5-5 years
During _____, children gain metalinguistic awareness (ability to reflect on language as a communication tool and on themselves as language users).
early school years
By _____ children recognize that words are difference from the concepts they represent, and they can use words in humorous or metaphoric ways
6-7 years old
underextension
occurs when a child applies a word too narrowly to objects or events
“Kitty” may mean the family cat, but not other cats.
overextension
occurs when a child applies a word to a wider range of objects or events than is appropriate.
Calling every animal a dog.
over-regularization
involves extending grammatical rules to words that are exceptions
Example: “goed “ for “went”, or “tooths” for “teeth”
bilingual (transition) programs
involve teaching children basic subjects in their native language and gradually switching to English
immersion (English-only) programs
immersion (English-only) programs involve providing instruction in English from the beginning
research on immersion and transition programs
most reviews of the research suggest that children in high-quality transition programs do as well as – or even better than – those in immersion programs
Transition > Immersion
research on age and second-language learning
adolescents and adults initially make faster progress in acquiring a second language, especially in terms of vocabulary and syntax
- however, long-term outcomes are usually better when second-language
learning begins in childhood - individuals exposed to a second language during childhood are more likely to speak the language with a native accent
code switching
common among bilinguals. involves alternating between languages during a conversation and helps the person express themselves better, establish rapport, and better express their attitude toward the listener
Which of the following is LEAST likely to be among a child’s first words?
a-run
b-bye-bye
c-car
d-sad
d-sad
remember, children’s first words tend to be labels for objects, people, or events. action words and modifiers also occur (bye-bye and please).
Carol Gilligan (1991) considers adolescence to be a particularly critical period for girls because it involves a conflict between:
self and culture
Kohlberg’s cognitive-developmental theory identifies which of the following as the initial stage of gender-role acquisition?
Gender identity
Thomas and Chess (1977) proposed that maladjustment in children is traceable to:
temperament
According to Erikson, a desirable outcome of the final stage of psychosocial development is which of the following?
Coming to terms with one’s life.
A 9-year-old is irritable, aggressive, dependent, low in achievement orientation and self-esteem, and has a limited sense of responsibility. Based on this information, you can conclude that his parents are:
authoritarian
As described by Marcia (1987), an adolescent experiencing “foreclosure” will be most likely to say which of the following about her career goals?
A. I’m following my dreams no matter what people say.
B. I’m going to follow my mother into her business.
C. I’ve reviewed my options and I think this is the best option for me.
D. I can’t decide what I want to do.
B. I’m going to follow my mother into her business.
According to Kubler-Ross (1969), a person’s initial reaction to learning that he or she has a life-threatening illness is most likely to be which of the following?
denial
It is not until the age of ___ that most children understand that when the “bad guy” is shot on television, he has not truly died in real life.
10
By age 10, most children have developed an understanding of death.
Children aged_____ typically have some understanding of death, but continue to exhibit magical thinking, and may not distinguish between fictional and real death.
5-9
Research by Kagan has confirmed that the temperament trait of ____ has a genetic component, is relatively stable, and is associated with physiological reactions
behavioral inhibition
_____ has been shown to be fairly stable and a good predictor of social relationships
behavioral inhibition
Research by Thomas and Chess
used nine dimensions of personality to classify infants as easy, difficult, or
slow-to-warm up
* easy children are even-tempered and adapt easily to new situations
* difficult children are irritable and react negatively to new situations
* slow-to-warm up children have low activity levels and mildly negative reactions to new
situations
* their goodness-of-fit model proposes that maladjustment in childhood is
related to a poor fit between the child’s basic temperament and his/her
parents’ behaviors
Freud’s theory of psychosexual development
t proposes that the id’s libido
centers on a different part of the body during each stage of
development
* personality outcomes are related to the ways in which conflicts at
each of the five stages are resolved
* for example, during the oral stage (birth to 1 year), the mouth is the focus of
sensation and stimulation and fixation can result in dependence, sarcasm, and orally-focused habits
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development stages
Basic trust vs mistrust (infancy): trust and optimism develop through a positive relationship with caregiver
Autonomy vs shame and doubt (toddlerhood): positive relationship with caregivers leads to autonomy
Initiative vs guilt (early childhood): ability to set goals and devise and carry out plans without infringing on the rights of others
Industry vs inferiority (school age): people int he neighborhood and school are important influences. Must master social skills and academics
Identity vs role confusion (adolescence): peers are dominant social influence. Positive outcome=personal identity and direction for future
Intimacy vs isolation (young adulthood): main task is to establish intimate bonds of love and friendship
Generality vs Stagnation (middle adulthood): people you live and work with are most important. Commitment to the future generations.
Ego Integrity vs Despair (maturational/ old age): development of wisdom, coming to terms with one’s life and mortality.
Baumrind et al.’s Four Styles of parenting
*authoritative parents have high levels of both demandingness and
responsivity
children are self-
confident, independent,
popular with peers and do well in
school
* authoritarian parents authoritarian parents are high in demandingness but low in
responsivity
children are irritable,
insecure, withdrawn,
and dependent, have
low self esteem and
are lacking in
motivation and
curiosity
*permissive (indulgent) parents are low in demandingness but high in responsivity
children are immature and reluctant to accept responsibility, have trouble controlling their impulses, and are uninvolved in school
*rejecting-neglecting parents neglecting parents are low in both demandingness and
responsivity
children are noncompliant, impulsive, and moody and prone to drug use and
antisocial behavior
research on parenting styles
the effects of parenting style are moderated by several factors including
ethnicity
* link between authoritative parenting and school success is weaker for African
American adolescents who are influenced more by peers
* Asian American adolescents often do well academically even when parents rely parenting practices associated with the authoritarian style
Stipek’s three stages of the development of self-awareness
physical self-recognition is evident by 18 months of age when infants
begin to recognize themselves in pictures and mirrors
self-description and evaluation emerges between 19 and 30 months when
children use both neutral and evaluative terms to describe themselves
children subsequently exhibit emotional responses to wrongdoing and have negative reactions to a caregiver’s disapproval
Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory:
proposes that cognitive understanding of gender precedes the adoption
of gender-role behaviors
* distinguishes between three invariant stages
* by age 2 or 3, children have acquired a gender IDENTITY and know they’re
either a boy or girl
* soon thereafter, children exhibit gender STABILITY and recognize that gender is stable over time
* by age 6 or 7, children exhibit gender CONSTANCY and understand that gender is constant across situations
Bem’s Gender Schema Theory:
proposes that children develop schemas of masculinity and femininity
as a result of their early sociocultural experiences
- individuals who are highly “gender schematic” have a strong gender
role identification and firmly adhere to gender role norms
Marcia’s Four Identity Stages:
*adolescents in the identity DIFFUSION stage have not experienced an identity
crisis and are not committed to a particular identity
- adolescents in the identity FORECLOSURE stage are committed to an identity but have not experienced an identity crisis
- adolescents in the identity MORATORIUM identity moratorium stage are experiencing an identity crisis but are not yet committed to a particular identity
- adolescents in the identity ACHIEVEMENT stage have resolved the identity crisis and are committed to a particular identity
Gilligan’s Relational Crisis:
at about 11 to 12 years of age, girls experience a relational crisis in
response to increasing pressure to fit cultural norms and stereotypes
about women
* for example, adolescent girls often experience a “loss of voice” when they realize women’s opinions are not highly valued
* a primary task is to provide adolescent girls with experiences that help them resist disconnection from themselves
Children are able to label people in terms of racial group by the time they are _____
3-4 years old
A more sophisticated understanding of race does not develop until about age _____. They begin to understand the social connotations and racial differences.
10
In a study by Katz 2003, the preference for same race peers _____ from ages ______, for white children but _____ during this period for black children
increases
3-6
decreases
The meta-analysis by Roberts, Walton, and Viechtbauer (2006) longitudinal studies founds that the greatest change in traits occurs during _____, but that ____, social dominance, and conscientiousness and _____ continue to _____ over the lifespan.
young adulthood
agreeableness
emotional stability
increase
by ages ____ children begin to gradually develop an awareness of the irreversibility of death but tend to personify it (ghosts) and believe they can cheat death,.
5-9
Which of the following theories proposes that the development of gender-role identity involves recognizing what behaviors are expected of males and females in one’s own sociocultural environment and then adapting one’s behavior to fit those expectations?
a- Freud’s psychodynamic theory
b- Bem’s gender schema theory
c- Kagan’s social learning theory
d- Kholberg’s cognitive-developmental theory
b- Bem’s gender schema theory
Of the theories of attachment, which theory gets the most support?
learning theory
Harlow’s research on monkeys and surrogate mothers:
concluded that a baby’s attachment to their mother is primarily due, in part, to contact comfort
___ is the pleasant, tactile, sensation that is provided by a soft, cuddly parent
contact comofrt
Bowlby’s theory of attachment was influenced by ____ and _____
ethology and evolutionary theory
Bowlby proposed that exposure
exposure of an infant to his/her mother during a critical period following birth produces a bond between them
Bowlby distinguished between 4 stages that occur during the first 2 years of life
preattachment
attachment-in-the-making
clearcut attachment
the formation of reciprocal relationships
as a result of experiences during Bowlby’s stages, children develop an ______ of relationships with others
internal working model
What is an internal working model?
a mental representation of self and others that influences the child’s future relationships
Signs of attachment include (with ages)
social referencing: at about 6 months, babies begin to “read” the emotional reactions of caregivers
separation anxiety: at 6 to 8 months, babies start to respond with obvious distress when separated from their primary caregiver
stranger anxiety: at about 8 to 10 months, babies show a strong negative reaction to strangers
Ainsworth four patterns of attachment
secure: use their mother as a base and explore the environment
* they may cry when mother leaves but greet her enthusiastically when she returns
* mothers of these babies are responsive and emotionally sensitive
insecure/avoidant: seem oblivious to their
mother’s presence
* they don’t cry when mother leaves and avoid her when she returns
* mothers of these babies are chronically unavailable and unresponsive or overstimulating and intrusive
insecure/anxious/ambivalent: are anxious even before mother leaves
* they are ambivalent when mother returns and are not easily comforted
* mothers of these babies are moody, inconsistent, and unpredictable
disorganized/disoriented: exhibit inconsistent,
contradictory behaviors
* they are distressed when mother leaves but disoriented and confused when she
returns
* these children have often been abused or severely neglected by their caregivers
Consequences of disorganized attachment
children with disorganized/disoriented attachment are at increased risk
for aggressiveness and other behavioral problems
Children separated from their mothers prior to _____ show little negative consequences
3 months
Children who are separated from their mothers at _____, exhibit moderate to extreme reactions (feeding and sleeping problems, social withdrawal, increased stranger anxiety, physicl rejection of new mother or clinging to her).
9 months or older
The most negative impact when separation of the mother and infant occurs during the _____
second half of the first year of life.
Research on “late adoptees”
they have higher than normal rates of emotional/ behavioral problems but also if they are initially raised in an institution, they are subsequently able to develop a close bond with their adoptive parents as long as they are adopted by 6 yrs old
What is the sequence of the emergence of emotions?
Primary emotions (basic): birth- express interest, sadness, disgust, surprised, and fear
Self-conscious emotions
*(2nd yer of life): they use social standards and rules to evaluate their on behaviors
*(18-24 months) begin to show outward signs of jealousy, empathy, and embarrassment
*(30-36 months): shame guilt, and pride
the ability of infants to detect emotions in others is manifested as ____, which appears during _____ and occurs when an infant spontaneously cries in response to the cries of another infant
emotional contagion
first few weeks of life
By ____ infants imitate the sad, happy, and angry expressions of their caregivers
3 months
Empathy consists of ____ and ____ components; with the ____ component involving perspective-taking and the _____ component consisting of a person’s emotional reaction to another person’s well being.
cognitive and affective
Empathy is considered to be the result of ____, ____, and _____.
languages, cognitive development, and emotional experiences
instrumental aggression
AKA proactive aggression, performed in order to obtain a desired reward or advantage
hostile aggression
AKA reactive aggression, an angry defensive response to provocation or a blocked goal and is meant to hurt another person
Patterson et al. attribute aggressiveness to a combination of
poor parental monitoring and coercive family interactions
Patterson developed a parent training program that teaches parents to reinforce their children’s _____, _____, and _____. PMTO
desirable behaviors, enforce rules consistently, and use alternatives to
punishment
Coercive family interaction model
proposes that children
a) initially learn aggressive behaviors from their parents who rarely reinforce prosocial behaviors, use harsh discipline, and reward their children’s aggressiveness with approval and attention
b) over time, aggressive parent-child interactions escalate
Social-Cognitive Factors of aggression (Perry and Dodge)
Perry et al. found that aggressive children are more likely to say that
it’s easier to perform aggressive acts than to inhibit them and to feel that aggression will have positive outcomes
* Dodge et al. found that aggressive children are likely to misinterpret the
ambiguous behaviors of others as intentionally hostile
* the effectiveness of interventions based on social-cognitive theory is
consistent with research showing that empathy is a key motivator for
moral behavior
Piaget’s theory of moral development (ages and descriptions)
based on research that involved having children respond to dilemmas related to violation of game rules
1- PREMORAL (prior to age 7), children exhibit little concern for rules
2- HETERONOMOUS (age 7 to 10), consider rules to be absolute and unchangeable
3- AUTONOMOUS (age 11), children recognize that rules can be changed by mutual agreement
Piaget’s findings on children and lying
Newer findings on lying
children are “spontaneous liars” but that most lying by very young children is natural and harmless.
however, by age 7-8, children begin to intentionally communicate false statements. By 10-11 they realize they can be deceived by others.
Newer findings state that children as young as 3-4 will lie intentionally to obtain reward or avoid punishment
Kholberg’s Theory of moral reasoning was derived from
derived from research that required participants to judge a moral
dilemma and explain the reasons for their judgment (i.e. “Heinz” experiment-stealing the medicine)
Kholberg’s theory of moral development
preconventional level: has not internalized social conventions
* in the punishment and obedience stage, individuals obey rules to avoid
punishment
* in the instrumental hedonism stage, individuals obey rules to obtain concrete
rewards
conventional level: accepts social conventions about what is right and wrong
* in the good girl/good boy stage, individuals obey rules and laws to obtain
approval and acceptance
* in the law and order stage, individuals obey rules and laws to show respect for
authority and maintain the social order
postconventional level: views laws and rules as useful but changeable
* in the social contract/individual rights stage, individuals base their judgments on democratically determined laws and the welfare of the majority
* in the individual principles of conscience stage, individuals base their judgments on abstract, universal principles such as justice, fairness, and equality
Gilligan’s Theory of moral development
was made in response to Kholberg’s being based on males
Level 1- orientation of individual survival (focus is on what is best for oneself)
*Transition 1-from selfishness to responsibility (recognition that we are connected to others)
Level 2-Goodness of self sacrifice (sacrifice of my own desires for those of others)
*Transition 2-from goodness to truth (focus is on coordinating my responsibilities to self and others)
Level 3-Morality of nonviolence (avoiding harm to oneself and to others is the foremost consideration)
Becky volunteers time to local charities only when she knows the people involved in the charity and wants to make a good impression on them and gain their approval. According to Kholberg, Becky is in which level of moral development?
conventional-
“good girl/ good boy” orientation. when the action is like or approved by others.
At approximately ____ months of age, babies begin to show outward signs of jealousy, empathy, and embarrassment.
18
A child in Piaget’s autonomous stage of moral development will base his judgment of whether an act is “right” or “wrong” primarily on:
intentions
During Kohlberg’s postconventional stage, moral judgments are based on:
either consensus or universal principles
Which of the following statements about adolescent adjustment in divorced families is true?
Select one:
A. The change represented by marital dissolution appears to be the primary stressor accounting for psychological and behavioral problems in youth of divorced families.
B. Variables associated with adolescent post-divorce adjustment include both dyadic and broader social factors.
C. Female adolescents demonstrate more psychological impact than male adolescents after divorce.
D. Male adolescents exhibit more academic and behavioral problems than female adolescents in the period prior to divorce.
B. Variables associated with adolescent post-divorce adjustment include both dyadic and broader social factors.
Tyrone and Tyree are 6-year-old twins. They attended daycare from the time they were two years old. In comparison to children who have not received care outside the home, you would expect Tyrone and Tyree to:
Select one:
A. demonstrate more prosocial behavior.
B. be more advanced in language development and aggressive behavior.
C. have greater cultural competency at the time of school entry.
D. be less prone to peer rejection.
B. be more advanced in language development and aggressive behavior
While children attending early daycare may be more advanced in academic markers by the time they enter school, externalizing behavior and increased aggressive behavior has been observed in several studies.
The research indicates that sibling relationships often involve contradictions, but the combination of _______ seems to be particularly characteristic of siblings during preadolescence and may be especially intense for _____.
closeness and conflict
those of the same gender who are close in age.
At approximately ____ months of age, babies begin to show outward signs of jealousy, empathy, and embarrassment.
18
Women are at higher risk for divorce when….
marry at a young age, have lower level of education, had a child before marriage or within 7 months of marriage, or cohabitated with their partner prior to marriage.
Gottesman and Levenson identified two interaction patterns that are predictive of divorce: an emotionally____ pattern is predictive of earlier divorce, while an emotionally _____ pattern is predictive of later divorce.
volatile attack-defend
inexpressive
The effects of divorce on children tend to be more profound during the ____ after the divorce, but the specific consequences are related to _____
first year
the child’s gender
Children who are ___ at the time of divorce initially exhibit the most problems, while children who are ___ may exhibit more long term consequences
preschoolers
older (6-8 years)
Remarriage is generally more difficult for ______ children and _____.
older
adolescent
the relationship between stepfathers and their stepchildren is best described as ____
disengaged
the benefits of maternal employment seem to outweigh the costs: kids of working mothers exhibit more egalitarian _____, and in lower SES families, sons of working mothers obtain higher scores on measures of _____
gender-dole concepts
cognitive development
Daycare can be associated with higher levels of ____, ____, and _____. (negative), and ______ (positve)
the research is mostly _____
demandingness, disobedience, and aggression towards children
faster intellectual growth
inconsistent
In middle childhood, sibling relationships are marked by a paradoxical combination of: _____ and _____. While in adolescence, sibling relationships become less _____ and more _____
closeness/conflict
cooperation/competition
emotionally intense
distant/egalitarian
Play is viewed as essential for all aspects of a child’s development: _____ play, for example, provides opportunities to develop cognitive abilities related to symbolizing, imitation, and problem solving.
dramatic (imaginative)
Parten (1932) categorized and distinguished between 3 types of non-social play and 3 types of social play. What were they?
non social play:
1-unoccupied play: involves random
movements that do not seem to
have a goal
2-onlooker play: child watches
other kids play and may make
comments but doesn’t join in
3-solitary play: plays alone and
independently of others
U
Only play
Solitaire
social play:
1-parallel play: plays alongside
others and shares the same toys
but doesn’t interact with them
2-associative play: will interact with
other kids and play with the same
toys but without organization or a
shared goal
3-cooperative play: organized group
interactions for the purpose of a
shard goal
Penguins
Assemble as a
Community
_______ children tend to be hostile, hyperactive, and impulsive and have difficulty regulating negative emotions and taking the perspective of others.
rejected-aggressive
_____ children have a high degree of social anxiety, tend to be submissive, have neg expectations about how others will treat them, and are often the victim of bullies
rejected-withdrawn
_____ children hav fewer than average interactions with peers, rarely engage in disruptive behaviors, and feel being alone is desirable. Do not report being lonely or unhappy.
neglected
between rejected and neglected children, ____ children express greater loneliness and peer dissatisfaction but are less likely to experience an improvement in peer status when they change social groups.
rejected
At about age ____, peer conformity peaks.
14-15
Studies comparing the relative influence of peers and parents during adolescence have found that ____ have more influence in regard to everyday issues such as music, clothes, and social activities and ____ are more influential when it comes to basic beliefs and values and educational and career goals.
peers
parents
What does the research say on marital satisfaction when children leave the home (i.e. “empty nest syndrome”)?
marital satisfaction goes up. For women, the increase in marital satisfaction is due to an increase in the QUALITY of interactions with their partner rather than the QUANTITY of time.
Carstensen’s socioemotional selectivity theory predicts that social motives correspond to the perceptions of time left in life as being ______
limited or unlimited.
Although early cross-sectional studies found a _____ relationship between marital duration and satisfaction, subsequent studies using a different methodology have generally not supported this pattern
U Shaped
Research investigating the impact of teacher expectations suggests that they can have a _______ effect on student achievement
self-fulfilling prophecy (Rosenthal)
Gender differences in how teachers treat boys and girls
boys: more likely to be praised for intellectual accomplishments
girls: more likely to be rewarded for effort, cooperation, and dependent behaviors
Studies investigating the impact of Head Start and other compensatory programs suggest that gains in _____ are short lived but that kids who attend these programs have:
IQ test scores
better attitudes towards school
less likely to be in a special ed class
and less likely to drop out of HS
A distinguishing feature of the Montessori method is its assumptions that learning stems from ______
sense perception
It is not until age ____ that children understand TV characters are playing a role, and age ____ that they understand commercials are intended to influence the buying habits of viewers.
7
8
The 4 stages of development According to Piaget
Sensorimotor: development depends on the sensory information provided by objects and other people and actions that can be performed upon them.
-make believe play
-representational thought
object permanence
-deferred imitation
Pre-operational: charcaterized by limitations such as the tendency to attribute human characteristics to inanimate objects
Concrete Operational: children are capable of conservation, which depends on the operations of reversibility and decentration
Formal Operational: characterized by the ability to think abstractly and engage in hypothetico-deductive reasoning.
-beginning involves renewed ego centrism, which is reflected in two phenomena (Elkind), the personal fable and imaginary audience.
