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foundations of medicine 1 > life at the cellular level (2) - molecules > Flashcards

life at the cellular level (2) - molecules Flashcards

1
Q

which elements is 99% of our body made up of

A

Hydrogen (H)
Oxygen (O)
Nitrogen (N)
Carbon (C)

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2
Q

where do H,O,N,C lie on the periodic table and what does that mean

A

they lie early in the periodic table meaning they are relatively light atoms
generally speaking, light atoms form the strongest bonds

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3
Q

how many bonds do H,O,N,C make

A

1,2,3,4 respectively

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4
Q

which of the four atoms (H,O,N,C) is the most versatile

A

carbon

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5
Q

what is a molecule

A

two or more elements bonded together

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6
Q

what does the bonding versatility of C explain

A

why it forms the basis of almost all biomolecules

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7
Q

why is C particularly versatile

A 
it can form stable:
single bonds (with H)
single and double bonds (with O and N)
single, double and sometimes triple binds with other C atoms
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8
Q

what does the variety of C’s bonding capability underlie

A

the evolution of all the different combinations of H,O,N, and C into biological molecules

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9
Q

what defines biomolecular functions

A

functional groups

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10
Q

what are functional groups

A

groups of elements (e.g. -OH) bonded to C

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11
Q

name 3 important functional groups

A

hydroxyl groups
aldehyde groups
keto groups

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12
Q

what is critical in determining functionality

A

the polarity in a molecule

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13
Q

what is polarity

A

distribution of electrons

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14
Q

give examples of stable bonds

A

C-C and C-H bonds are relatively stable as they share e-‘s equally

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15
Q

give examples of highly polar bonds

A

C-O and C-N or C-functional group bonds are highly polar, which alters the bond reactivity

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16
Q

what does the function of biomolecules depend on

A

the configuration of groups on the molecule

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17
Q

what does configuration mean

A

the fixed arrangement of atoms in a molecule

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18
Q

lots of biomolecules contains a double bond between carbon atoms (C=C), what is this called

A

a rigid conformation

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19
Q

what are the two distinct configurations

A

trans and cis

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20
Q

how can you interconvert between the two configurations

A

by breaking and re-forming bonds

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21
Q

give an example of when configuration can be important biologically

A

Rhodopsin is a protein embedded in the (rods of the) retina of the eye. On exposure to light the configuration of rhodopsin alters and this alteration stimulates nerves cells in the optic nerve to send messages to the brain where we “see”.

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22
Q

what can carbon mades molecules be

A

symmetrical (achiral)

asymmetric (chiral)

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23
Q

what are the 2 forms of asymmetric (chiral) carbon molecules

A

L- (Laevo)
D- (Dectro)
each exert different biological effects

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24
Q

what are all proteins made from

A

L-amino acids only

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25
Q

what does conformation mean

A

the precise arrangement of atoms in a molecule

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26
Q

what are the 5 chemical reactions of life

A
  • redox reactions
  • making and breaking C-C bonds
  • internal rearrangements
  • group transfers
  • condensation and hydrolysis reactions
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27
Q

what happens in many biological reactions

A

two e-‘s (and two protons) are gained or lost

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28
Q

what is often transferred from one molecule to another

A

2 hydrogen atoms (protons) are transferred in dehydrogenation reactions

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29
Q

what does oil rig mean in redox reactions

A

oxidation is loss (of electrons)

reduction is gain (ofelectrons)

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30
Q

what is a reducing agent

A

it becomes oxidised itself as it reduces another compount

31
Q

what is an oxidation agent

A

it becomes reduced itself as it oxidises another compound

32
Q

why are NAD+ and NADH very important agents

A

they allow biochemical reactions to take place in cells

33
Q

what type of agent is NADH

A

a reducing agent

34
Q

what type of agent is NAD+

A

an oxidising agent

35
Q

give an example of making/breaking C-C bonds

A

cleavage of glucose in the glycolysis pathway

36
Q

give an example of internal rearrangements

A

in glycolysis, a rearrangement of the conformation of G6P occurs before the sugar is split

37
Q

give an example of group teransfers

A

in glycolysis, in an enzyme catalysed reaction, a phosphoryl group (PO32-) is transferred from ATP to F6P
ATP provides energy for cellular reactions

38
Q

what is a condensation reaction

A

occurs where two smaller molecules combine to form a larger molecule and in doing so release water (or other small molecules e.g. methanol)

39
Q

what is a hydrolysis reaction

A

involve adding water to a molecule, and most commonly simultaneously breaking down a large molecule into smaller units

40
Q

what is joined by condensation and broken by hydrolysis reactions

A

the sub-units of protein, polysaccharides and nucleic acids

41
Q

what reactions are condensation and hydrolysis reactions important in

A

carbohydrate metabolism

42
Q

what are complex carbohydrates composed of

A 
Complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides) such as starch or glycogen are composed of many individual monosaccharide molecules e.g. glucose. 
A disaccharide e.g. sucrose, is simply two monosaccharides joined together.
43
Q

give examples of glucose polymers

A

glycogen

starch

44
Q

how are glucose polymers formed

A

by condensation reactions between two glucose monomers

45
Q

how are the glucose monomers in glycogen and starch linked together

A

one glucose monomer is liked to another which locks the additional glucose in a cyclic form

46
Q

how are lots of monomers liked together

A

all monomers of the chain are locked in the cyclic form except the end monomer, which can remain linear
this end monomer then forms a ‘reducing end’

47
Q

give an example of a reduced sugar

48
Q

what functional group does the linear form of D-glucose have attached

A

an aldehyde group which can be oxidised

If this is oxidised then the other reactant would be reduced, so glucose is termed a ‘reducing sugar’

49
Q

what is the difference between proteins and polypeptided

A

Proteins are (sometimes multiple) long chains of amino acids. Polypeptides on the other hand are shorter (but not necessarily short!) chains of amino acids.

50
Q

what do nucleic acids form

A

the core structure of DNA and RNA

51
Q

what are nucleic acids

A

polymers of nucleotide monomers linked by 3’,5’-phosphodiester bonds

52
Q

what makes up a nucleotide monomer

A

a bade
a sugar molecule
a phosphate group

53
Q

what are the 2 kinds of base in nucleic acids

A

pyrimidines

purines

54
Q

what are pyrimidines

A

cytosine (C)
thymine (T) (DNA only)
uracil (U) (RNA only)

55
Q

what are purines

A

adenine (A)

guanine (G)

56
Q

what is RNA made from

A

“normal” ribose sugars

57
Q

what is DNA made from

A

deoxyribose sugars, which lack an oxygen atom

58
Q

what is DNA

A

a double stranded nucleic acid. In other words, it is two independent chains of nucleic acids, linked together by their bases, which wrap around themselves to form the characteristic double helix of DNA

59
Q

what is RNA

A

a single stranded nucleic acidAlthough it can wrap itself up in such a way that double stranded sections may form.

60
Q

how does base pairing occur in DNA and RNA

A

a pyrimidine always pairs with a purine

61
Q

how does base pairing occur in DNA

A

purines - pyrimidines
adenine - thymine
guanine - cytosine

62
Q

how does base pairing occur in RNA

A

purines - pyrimidines
adenine - uracil
guanine - cytosine

63
Q

how are fatty acids formed

A

long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms

64
Q

what type of bonds can be within the fatty acid between the carbon atoms

A

single or double

65
Q

what does it mean if the fatty acid is saturated

A

all of the bonds in the fatty acid are single

66
Q

what does it mean if the fatty acid is mono-unsaturated

A

there is one double bond in the fatty acid

67
Q

what does it mean if the fatty acid id polyunsaturated

A

there are more than one double bond in the fatty acid

68
Q

what happens to a fatty acid molecule the more double bonds present

A

it becomes more “bendy”

69
Q

what effect does desaturation have on the fluidity of the fatty acid

A

The more unsaturated the fatty acid (the more double bonds in the chain) the more fluid the fatty acid.
This has important implications for cell membranes, which are largely composed of fatty acids, and health generally.

70
Q

what are lipids

A

a family of molecules made up of fatty acids

71
Q

what are the 3 classes of lipids

A

triacylglycerides
phospholipids
sterols

72
Q

what are triacylglycerides

A

they are also called triglycerides
storage lipids
non-polar
3 fatty acid chains lined to glycerol

73
Q

what are phospholipids

A

Similar to triacylglycerides,
But they have only two fatty acids chains and a phosphate group attached to the ‘head’ of these chains
This makes them polar
They form biological cell membranes – very important!

74
Q

what are sterols

A

Produced in plants, animals and some micro-organisms
Most important one in humans is cholesterol
-Another essential component of cell membranes
-Precursor to steroid hormones and fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E)

foundations of medicine 1 (7 decks)

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