Liberalism Key Thinkers

Question 1

John Locke

Answer 1

(1632-1704)- classical liberal. Seen as the “father of liberal philosophy”.

Question 2

What traditional British belief did Locke reject?

Answer 2

Denied that the state was part of gods creation, disputing the idea that the state had been created by a celestial power, involving monarchs who had the “divine right to govern”.

Question 3

Because of Locke’s rejection of the divine right of kings, what did he reject about people and how did this lead him to think a true state would arise?

Answer 3

Rejected the notion that ordinary people were “subjects” of the state, with a religious obligation to obey the monarch. For this reason, a true state would only arise via the consent of the people.

Question 4

Prior to the states exitance, what did Locke believe existed?

Answer 4

There was a natural society (the state of nature) which served mankind’s interests tolerably well.

Question 5

Locke’s view on how the state of nature would be (and his view on human nature)?

Answer 5

Owing to Locke’s upbeat view of human nature, and his belief it was guided by rationalism, he believed that the state of nature was underpinned by “natural laws” “natural liberties” and “natural rights”.

Question 6

How did John Locke think a state should emerge from the state of nature?

Answer 6

The state of nature was not one people would leave at any cost, and the alternative “state of law” would therefore need to improve upon peoples lives. Would be legitimate only if it respected peoples “natural rights” and “natural laws”, thus ensuring individuals were never worse up than in the state of nature.

Question 7

How did Locke think the state should be - what should it embody and what did it need?

Answer 7

The states body should embody natural rights and natural liberties that preceded it. The state needed voluntary consent to accept their ruling in return for the state improving their situation.

Question 8

Because of its contractual nature, what should the state embody?

Answer 8

A limited government, limited to always represent the interests of the governed. The states limited character would be confirmed by dispersal of its power.

Question 9

Mary Wollstonecraft

Answer 9

1759-97, Classical Liberal

Question 10

What was Wollstonecraft’s primary claim about the enlightenments optimistic view of human nature?

Answer 10

View of human nature was guided by reason applying to all humans - male and female.

Question 11

In 18th century England, what did both society and the state imply and what did Wollstonecraft think this denied?

Answer 11

Women were not rational, and this denied them formal equality i.e. women rarely allowed to own land and if they did had to give it up when they got married, and could not vote.

Question 12

As a result of fettering female individualism, what were nations were limiting?

Answer 12

Their stock of intelligence, wisdom and morality. She claimed “such arrangements are not conditions where reason and progress can prosper”.
Denial of liberty to a entire gender left society vulnerable and threatened the whole spirit of the enlightenment.

Question 13

How did Wollstonecraft feel about the US and French revolution?

Answer 13

The 1776 American Revolution and the 1789 French Revolution. Her other major work, “A Vindication of the rights on women” 1790”, attacked Edmunds Burkes critic of the French Revolution, his history and aristocratic rule.

Question 14

What type of government and equality did Wollstonecraft express support for through supporting the French and US revolutions?

Answer 14

A republican government and formal equality, involving a constitutional defence of individual rights. Such formal equality should be given to all individuals not just men, for this reason she applauded the French revolutions emphasis on “citizens” not men.

Question 15

What did Wollstonecraft concede about women?

Answer 15

Women themselves were complacent in their subjugation, generally only desiring motherhood and marriage. For this to be corrected formal education must become available to as many women as possible.

Question 16

Without formal education, what could individuals never develop and realise?

Answer 16

Individuals could never develop their rational faculties and never realise individual potential and recognise the absurdity of illiberal principles, such as the divine right on king.

Question 17

JS Mill

Answer 17

(1806-73), the bridge between classical and modern liberalism

Question 18

Wollstonecraft book:

Answer 18

“A Vindication of the Rights of Women” 1790

Question 19

JS Mill book:

Answer 19

On Liberty 1859

Question 20

In “on liberty” JS Mill created the idea of “negative freedoms”. what were negative freedoms?

Answer 20

Freedoms mainly involved with an absence of restraint.

Question 21

JS Mills “harm principle”:

Answer 21

The notion that individuals actions should always be tolerated, by either the state or the individual, unless it could be demonstrated that they would harm others.

Question 22

What did Mill divide human nature into?

Answer 22

“self regarding” and “other regarding”

Question 23

“self regarding” human action:

Answer 23

did not impinge of the freedoms of others in society and therefore should be tolerated.

Question 24

“other regarding” human action:

Answer 24

clearly did harm freedoms of others in society and therefore should not be tolerated by liberal states.

Question 25

Why did Mill think the tolerance of diverse opinions was especially important?

Answer 25

It would ensure that new ideas would emerge whilst bad ideas were left out in the open.

Question 26

How did Mill se liberty and how did this guide his beliefs on human nature?

Answer 26

He saw liberty not just as a natural right but as an engine of ongoing human development. As such human nature was never a finished article, but an ongoing human development.

Question 27

Mills views on individualism and his concept of individuality:

Answer 27

He did not just want to liberate individuals as they were present instead he pondered what individuals could become. He termed this concept “individuality” - the development of individualism.

Question 28

Mills quotes (Socrates and pig and interests of man)

Answer 28

“its better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a pig dissatisfied”, while any support of liberty had to be “grounded on the permeant interests of man as a progressive being”.

Question 29

how did his distinction between “individualism” and “individuality” have crucial implications for how he approached democracy?

Answer 29

He was particularly concerned that the timeless liberal principle of “government by consent” would be compromised if the wishes of individual citizens were overwhelmed by the wishes of most individual citizens. He feared “tyranny of the majority”.

Question 30

TH Green

Answer 30

1836-82, modern liberal

Question 31

TH Green: The concept of organic society and its application to modern day conditions:

Answer 31

Basic properties is that SoC is not merely a collection of unrelated individuals but a single entity-a living Organism with a life of its own which exists above the consciousness of individuals. SoC has collective consciousness- “Volksgemeinshaft”.

Question 32

what 2 branches of freedom did Green recognise?

Answer 32

-the absence of restraint
-freedom to realise one’s own aspirations

Question 33

What did Th Green think about state intervention?

Answer 33

Thought the state should intervene to help people become free. Proposed narrow range of measures mainly to reduce inherited privilege and to provide equality of opportunity through education-therefore he did not believe in free market capitalism or socialism.

Question 34

John Rawls

Answer 34

1921-2002, modern liberal

Question 35

John Rawls book:

Answer 35

“A Theory of justice” 1971

Question 36

John Rawls book: “A Theory of justice” 1971 had two principles, what were these two principles?

Answer 36

1.”foundational equality”
2.redistribution of wealth was not a “surrender to socialism

Question 37

1st principle in “A theory of justice” 1971

Answer 37

To restate the idea of “foundational equality” meant not just formal equality under law/constitution but greater social and economic equality.

Question 38

Why did Rawls think foundation equality (1st principle) was nesscerry?

Answer 38

To ensure a just society where all lives could be rich and fulfilled. Yet, this could be provided , only by an enabling state, with extensive public spending and public expenditure.

Question 39

2nd principle in “A theory of justice”:

Answer 39

Redistribution of wealth was not a “surrender to socialism”, but consistent with liberal principles. To do this, Rawls created a series of philosophical conditions. The first of these was termed “the original position”, the second was termed “the veil of ignorance”.

Question 40

Rawls: “the original position”

Answer 40

Individuals would be asked to create a society superior to the one they lived in. Central to this was the way that wealth and power should be distributed.

Question 41

Rawls: “the veil of ignorance”

Answer 41

Individuals would have no preconceptions about the sort of people they might be in this new society. Rawls argued when faced with such conditions, human nature being rational, would mean that people would choose to be born into a society where all were equal, and so a fairer society was one where inequalities were reduced.

Question 42

How did he deny that his philosophy was simply a surrender to socialism?

Answer 42

Though most individuals would choose to improve the lot of the poorest, they would still want to considerable scope for individual liberty and self fulfilment; ensuring greater equality of outcome.

Question 43

How did Rawls make it clear he was not a socialist?

Answer 43

Rawls argued that the poor should be improved by the state, he did not argue the gap between the rich and poor should be narrowed ensuring that his philosophy was not socialism.

Question 44

Betty Frieden

Answer 44

1921-2006, modern-feminist liberal

Question 45

Frieden book:

Answer 45

The feminine mystique 1963

Question 46

What did Frieden argue condemned women to underachievement?

Answer 46

Argued that it was illiberal attitudes in society rather than human nature that condemned women to underachievement.

Question 47

How were illiberal attitudes in society nurtured and transmitted?

Answer 47

Via societies various “cultural channels”, notably schools, religion, the media and mainstream literature.

Question 48

How did channels of cultural conditioning leave women convinced about their human nature?

Answer 48

These channels of “cultural conditioning” left women convinced that their lot in life was determined by human nature rather than their own rationality and enterprise. She sought to challenge the “irrational” assumption.

Question 49

what was Friedens reputation as a liberal/feminist was underlined by?

Answer 49

the fact she disdained violence or illegality as a means of bringing about change. She argued significant progress was possible via legal equality, brought about by the proceedings of a liberal state.

Question 50

Friedens views on the US constitution and rejection of the radical feminist argument:

Answer 50

She acknowledged the principles of the US constitution and endorsed its capacity to allow continuous improvement individuals lives. Consequently she rejected the more radical feminist argument that the state was “patriarchal” and forever in the control of the dominant gender.