Liberalism

Question 1

How is liberalism an influential ideology?

Answer 1

Most commentators agree that liberalism is the most important and influential ideology in the world today - and there is reason to argue that its influence its increasing.

According to the UN, almost two-thirds of the states across the globe may now be classed as ‘liberal democracies’, a seven-fold increase since 1943

For many academics, liberalism represents not just the prevailing ideology but the inevitable destination for advanced societies and the politicians who guide them.

It informs the political systems of both the EU and the US.

Question 2

How has the Uk, US and europe been influenced by liberalism?

Answer 2

In the Uk, the US and much of western Europe, being ‘liberal’ denotes being at odds with the values of conservatism and being closer to the values of socialism (hence the term, the liberal-left). This explains why a self-proclaimed American liberals such as Hilary Clinton was seeking the same party’s presidential nomination as self-proclaimed socialist, Bernie Sanders while opposing conservatives in the Republican Party. - Diversity.

Yet ‘liberal’ has rather different connotations in other parts of the world. For example, in Australia, it is the liberal party that offers the main opposition to that country’s labour party providing a home for many of Australia’s conservatives

Question 3

Explain the origins of liberalism

Answer 3

ORIGINS OF LIBERALISM:

In many ways. the roots of liberalism lie in the Reformation, a religious movement affecting much of Northern Europe in the last (15thand(18th). This movement was led by religious protestors such as Martin Luther, these founders of ‘protestant’ Christianity argued that individuals seeking to communicate with God need no longer rely on priests, popes and other intermediaries. Luther argued that Christianity could assume a more individualistic character, with each individual undertaking their own prayers and undertaking God’s work in their own way.

However, it was the Enlightenment that sought to extend these religious ideas into the political and secular spheres.

Question 4

What is the enlightenment movement?

Answer 4

The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that emerged in the mid-(17th (coinciding with the English Civil War and the overthrow of Charles I) and one that had a profound effect upon politics in the 18th (influencing the creation of an independent American republic after 1776 and the French revolution of 1789.

It was defined by a belief in reason rather than faith and this promoted relentless debate and inquiry, questioning and scrutinising - which previously, was unthinkable. - greater belief of logic and reasoning rather than using faith or religion to provide explanations

Question 5

What radical ideas emerged from the Enlightenment movement?

Answer 5

Among the radical ideas that emerged from the Enlightenment were that each individual has free will, that each individual is the best judge of their own interests and that each individual’s life should be shaped by their own actions and decisions.

Writers such as John Locke (1632-1704) widely regarded as the ‘father’ of liberalism - began to question the relationship between individuals and governments, seeking to define why and how individuals should defer to those who governed them

For Locke and other enlightenment philosophers, humans were uniquely endowed with the power of logic, calculation and dedication - it was logical therefore that they would want to create a political system based upon reason (a principle that political scientists now describe as mechanistic theory)

Question 6

Explain classical liberalism

Answer 6

CLASSICAL LIBERALISM:

The political idea of classical liberalism are most commonly associated with the age of Enlightenment, when rationalistic ideas of science and philosophy challenged, the religious order and divinely ordained by monarchical government. The key ideas can be summarised as followed:

• Government by consent
• Guarantee of individual freedom
• Representative democracy
• A limited role for the state within society and the economy
• Individuals are born with natural rights

Question 7

Explain Modern liberalism

Answer 7

MODERN LIBERALISM:

Modern liberalism argued for an increased role for the state within society and the economy

For some it enhanced individual freedom and was a logical continuation of the ideas of classical liberalism - evolution

For others, such as neo-liberals, this was a betrayal of classical liberalism’s core ideas

Question 8

state the core ideas and principles of liberalism

Answer 8

The core ideas include:
• Individualism
• Freedom and liberty
• State
• Rationalism
• Equality and social justice
• Liberal democracy

Question 9

state the key thinkers of liberalism

Answer 9

John Locke (1632-1704)
• Social contract theory – society, state and government
are based on a theoretical voluntary agreement.
• Limited government – that government should be limited
and based on consent from below.

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–97)
• Reason – women are rational and independent beings
capable of reason.
• Formal equality – in order to be free, women should
enjoy full civil liberties and be allowed to have a career.

John Stuart Mill (1806-73)
• Harm principle – that individuals should be free to do
anything except harm other individuals.
• Tolerance – belief that the popularity of a view does not
necessarily make it correct.

John Rawls (1921-2002)
• Theory of justice – opinion that society must be just and
guarantee each citizen a life worth living.
• The veil of ignorance – a hypothetical scenario where
individuals agree on the type of society they want from a
position where they lack knowledge of their own position
in society.

Betty Friedan (1921-2006)
• Legal equality – women are as capable as men and that
oppressive laws and social views must be overturned.
• Equal opportunity – women are being held back from
their potential because of the limited number of jobs
that are ‘acceptable’ for women.

Question 10

define foundational equality

Answer 10

Rights that all humans have by virtue of being born which cannot be taken away (also known as natural rights and inalienable rights).

Question 11

define formal equality

Answer 11

The idea that all individuals have the same legal and political rights in society.

Question 12

define equality of opportunity

Answer 12

The idea that all individuals should have equal chances in life to rise and fall.

Question 13

define social contract

Answer 13

The idea that the state/society is set up with agreement from the people to respect its laws which serve to protect them

Question 14

define meritocracy

Answer 14

A society organised on the basis that success is based on ability and hard work.

Question 15

define mechanistic theory

Answer 15

The idea that the state was created by ‘man’ to serve the people and act in their interests.

Question 16

define tolerance

Answer 16

A willingness to respect values, customs and beliefs with which one disagrees.

Question 17

define limited government

Answer 17

The role of government is limited by checks and balances, and a separation of powers because of the corrupting nature of power.

Question 18

define egoistical individualism

Answer 18

The idea that individual freedom is associated with self-interest and self-reliance

Question 19

define developmental individualism

Answer 19

The idea that individual freedom is linked to human flourishing.

Question 20

define negative freedom

Answer 20

The absence of external constraints in society as well as no interference in the private sphere.

Question 21

define positive freedom

Answer 21

The idea that freedom is about personal fulfilment and realisation of potential.

Question 22

define laissez - faire capitalism

Answer 22

An economic system, organised by the market, where goods are produced for exchange and profit, and wealth is privately owned.

Question 23

define Keynesianism

Answer 23

An economic system that requires government involvement to stimulate the economy to achieve full employment and price stability.

Question 24

define harm principle

Answer 24

The idea that individuals should be free to do anything except harm other individuals.

Question 25

define minimal state

Answer 25

The idea that the role of the state must be restricted in order to preserve individual liberty.

Question 26

define enabling state

Answer 26

A larger state that helps individuals to achieve their potential and be free.

Question 27

Explain individualism as a core idea and principle of liberalism

Answer 27

INDIVIDUALISM:

The preservation of individuals rights and freedoms above any claims by the state or groupings within society are of paramount importance to liberals.

John Locke (1632-1704) focused on the individual rights of man. Locke believed in foundational equality: that man’s nature state was one of freedom and in particular freedom from unnecessary external interference by the state.

Locke and J.S Mill (1806-73) perceived individuals as capable of intellectually informed ideas but as self-interested and mutually indifferent to each other.

Modern liberalism’s (ML) perception of individualism differs from that of classical liberalism (CL). ML argues that CL underplays the inequality of society. Society is not equal, and some individuals have a distinct advantage over others. Likewise, the idea that individuals are autonomous is also overstated.

John Rawls (1921-2002) argued that one’s societal position and particular circumstance (social class, gender, ethnicity, innate intelligence etc). were of huge importance in determining whether an individual thrived or underachieved within society. Therefore, individuals can have both innate advantages and disadvantages that play a sizeable role in their eventual fate. The negative freedom practiced by CL only exacerbates these inequalities rather than addressing them. ML therefore critiques CLs ‘egotistical individualism.

Liberalism is also associated with individual tolerance, a concept that has developed over time. Locke writing in the (17th, focused on respecting alternative religions and political views, while Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97) and Betty Friedan (1921-2006) argued for a tolerance of men towards women, calling for an end to sexual discrimination within society. In the (21st individual tolerance has been extended towards homosexuals and more recently transgendered individuals).

Question 28

contrast modern liberals and classical liberals perception of individualism

Answer 28

Modern liberalism’s (ML) perception of individualism differs from that of classical liberalism (CL). ML argues that CL underplays the inequality of society. Society is not equal, and some individuals have a distinct advantage over others. Likewise, the idea that individuals are autonomous is also overstated.

Question 29

Explain John Rawls perspective on individualism

Answer 29

John Rawls (1921-2002) argued that one’s societal position and particular circumstance (social class, gender, ethnicity, innate intelligence etc). were of huge importance in determining whether an individual thrived or underachieved within society. Therefore, individuals can have both innate advantages and disadvantages that play a sizeable role in their eventual fate. The negative freedom practiced by CL only exacerbates these inequalities rather than addressing them. ML therefore critiques CLs ‘egotistical individualism.

Question 30

What does liberalism also associate with individualism?

Answer 30

Liberalism is also associated with individual tolerance, a concept that has developed over time. Locke writing in the (17th, focused on respecting alternative religions and political views, while Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97) and Betty Friedan (1921-2006) argued for a tolerance of men towards women, calling for an end to sexual discrimination within society. In the (21st individual tolerance has been extended towards homosexuals and more recently transgendered individuals).

Question 31

Explain Classical liberalism’s attitude to individualism

Answer 31

CLASSICAL LIBERALISM:

• An individual’s primary motivation is for egoistical individualism, which is concerned with maximising their own utility (their personal worth or value) so that they can thrive to the best of their ability
• The freedom of the individual is sacrosanct. Society would be atomistic: a collection of autonomous individuals
• The state should be small, limited to maintaining law and order and protecting society from invasion, so that it does not infringe on individual freedom and respects formal equality. This limited interference is sometimes called negative freedom - ‘freedom from’.
• Classical liberalism influenced the American revolutionaries who refer specifically to ‘life, liberty and the pursuit to happiness’ in the American Declaration of Independence. These are human rights that the state must uphold and protect

Question 32

Explain Modern Liberalism’s attitude to individualism

Answer 32

MODERN LIBERALISM:

• T.H Green (1836-82) was an early advocate of modern liberalism, who argued for positive freedom whereby the state practices a form of developmental individualism to help make society a fairer place.
• Modern liberals can broadly agree with classical liberals on the concept of self-reliance but argue that the state must offer a ‘hand up’ if every individual is to achieve this goal.
• The influence of modern liberalism’s ideas of developmental individualism can be seen in the expansion of state involvement and welfare provision in Western democracies after the Second World War
• Modern liberals would agree that ‘life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness’ are human rights. However, whereas classical liberals argue for a minimal state to ensure these values, modern liberals believe than only an interventionist state can guarantee such freedoms.

Question 33

Explain the core idea of freedom/liberty in relation to liberalism (according to locke)

Answer 33

The concept of freedom has evolved as liberalism has developed over the centuries. Early liberals, resented how authoritarian government and absolute monarchies retained full legitimacy, often at the expense of their subject freedoms.

• Freedom is therefore intimately connected with the law for as Locke argues, ‘where there is no law there is no liberty’. Freedom is a natural right: He asserted that that the role of the government was the protection of man’s rights to ‘life, liberty and estate’. The state is needed to mediate between competing individuals to enforce order, to protect property rights and to prevent the breach of contracts and fraud.
• Absolute monarchies were illegitimate, and Locke argued for a state constructed by social contract where individuals are governed by consent. This idea was based on the rationalistic proposition that individuals would enter into a social contract to allow the state to act as a neutral umpire to resolve the crashes. If the state broke the contract by not protesting or enhancing natural rights to withdraw their consent and replace the government. For many classical liberals, the American revolution was a perfect example of a broken contract between the ruled and the rulers.
• The state should practice limited government so that the individual might enjoy the maximum amount of freedom within a legal framework. This freedom gave heavy emphasis to the economic sphere of society and the doctrine of laissez-faire capitalism as advocated by Adam Smith in the ‘Wealth of Nations’ 1776

Question 34

How did J.S MILL broaden what is meant by liberalism?

Answer 34

J.S MILL broadened what liberalism meant by freedom: advocating freedom of speech, thought and religion, unless these pose a direct threat to others, is an idea that become known as negative freedom. Individuals should be free from interference even if this means NLs using Mill’s ideas to justify why individuals should be free to take drugs that are currently illegal, arguing that it is their choice and not the state’s.

Question 35

Explain classical liberalism’s concept of freedom in comparison to the modern liberalism

Answer 35

CL’s conception of freedom is atomistic: made up of individuals with their own interests. There is no broader ‘public interests’ or ‘common good’ that individuals have to serve. People succeed or fail in society on their own efforts. The state should not provide welfare as this will just make individuals dependent on the state. This rugged individualism will make society more dynamic as individuals have to succeed their own merits and efforts. Mill moved from a strictly CL approach to more ML approach where he advised that the state had a moral right to educate individuals. These ideas changed the way liberals though about the freedom, the role of the state and the nature of society.

Question 36

How do modern liberals view freedom/liberty?

Answer 36

• T.H Green broadened Mill’s ideas when he argued that society was organic (not atomistic as CLs believed), that there was a common good and that public interest coexisted with individual interests. Limited state intervention was necessary to facilitate with individualism, which would increase individual’s capacity to be free.
• Whereas the negative freedom of CL focused on a freedom from the state, Green argued that this does not recognise that freedom could be threatened by social and material disadvantage within society and the economy
• Green supported positive freedom that allowed individuals to achieve their aspirations by the state assisting their development
• Similarly, Rawls argued for a larger role for the state in society and the economy. This ‘enabling’ state would ensure an individuals life chances were not determined by their status at birth. These levels of intervention would involve more taxation and state spending to ensure equality of opportunity via development individualism

Question 37

Explain Negative freedom/liberty?

Answer 37

Negative Freedom / Liberty:

• A conception of freedom that defines itself as an absence
• Liberal philosopher Isaiah Berlin (1907-97) described it as ‘freedom from’ rather than ‘freedom to’
• advocates of negative freedom want freedom from government interference wherever possible
• Classical liberals and neo-liberals prefer negative freedom and a minimal state

Question 38

Explain Positive Freedom / Liberty?

Answer 38

Positive freedom / Liberty:

• A conception of freedom which sees the state playing a positive role to assist individuals to achieve their dreams and aspirations and develop as individuals
• A state-funded education system would be an example of positive freedom
• Modern liberals prefer positive freedom and an enabling state

Question 39

Why has Carole Pateman (1940) criticised liberalism?

Answer 39

Finally, Carole Pateman (1940) and others have criticised liberalism for having a conception of freedom that is male-centric to the exclusion of women.. Although Pateman is correct that many (male) writers of liberal ideas fall into this category, it is not entirely fair as liberalism has acknowledge female rights: J.S Mill’s ‘The subjection of Women’ (1869) argued for the votes for women decades before enfranchisement was achieved.

Question 40

Explain Wollstonecraft and Friedan’s on freedom/liberty

Answer 40

Wollstonecraft championed formal equality in society, in terms of women pursuing a career, playing a role in the economy and having legal and property rights. She also argued that women were equally as rational as men, as ‘the mind has no gender’. If they did not appear equal, it was because most women had been denied the same educational opportunities. Friedan championed equality of opportunity to a far greater and in a more explicit sense than Wollstonecraft in the middle years of the (20th)

Question 41

Explain the liberal attitude to the state

Answer 41

The liberal attitude to the state, its size, role and limits is critical to an understanding of the development of liberalism in the last 400 years. CL set the parameters by arguing for a minimal state (which contemporary NLs support), which was subsequently altered by modern liberals to an enabling state

Question 42

Explain the classical liberalism perspective in relation to the state

Answer 42

Classical liberalism: The traditional liberal position is that the state is a necessary evil. Although CL (and its modern-day counterpart, NL) advocates egotistical individualism within society and a laissez-faire attitude towards the economy, it never went as far as individualistic anarchism in arguing that there should be no state at all. The state must protect ‘life, liberty and estate’. The state must intervene to uphold the rule of law and to protect society from foreign invasion. These interventions require institutions such as police forces armies, laws and a judiciary to uphold the law.

The kind of liberal state that Locke advocated was in direct contrast to the absolute monarchies that dominated Europe when he was writing. Power in these countries was dominated by monarchs who received legitimacy via the religious belief of the ‘divine right of kings’ which asserted that the sovereign was ordained to rule by God. Locke disagreed with such an irrational interpretation of God’s will, arguing instead for government by consent and whereby the state would be the result of a social contract enshrining the natural state of freedom into the law of government. Individuals would enter into such a social contract voluntarily and consensually whereby government was subject to the consent of the people and in return individuals would agree to obey its laws. This would ensure that ‘government should always be the servant and not master, of the people’. The state should be organised in the following ways:

• It should be based on rational ideas rather than the traditional ideas. A constitutional government would therefore replace an arbitrary government and traditional monarchy.
• Government should be based on the principle of limited government by limiting its power and its jurisdiction.

Question 43

How do classical liberals wish to limit the government?

Answer 43

BY LIMITING POWER:

• power should be divided between the different branches of government. The separation of powers idea was posited by the French Philosopher Montesquieu and would see three branches of government : legislative, executive and judiciary - separated from each other. Each of these branches would have the ability as check on the others
• The state should be based on Locke’s principle of ‘government of consent’. This would be done through constitutional agreements and government that is constantly accountable to the people via regular elections.
• These principles influenced the creation of the US constitution

Question 44

How do classical liberals by limiting jurisdiction?

Answer 44

BY LIMITING JURISIDICTION:

• Individuals should be protected by law from actions that might harm their individual liberty. Economically, the state should protect property rights, oversee the enforcement of legal contracts by the law, and regulate monopoly power which would operate against the interests of consumers,.
• The state should operate under the rule of law, whereby all citizens would enjoy foundational equality

Question 45

How do classical liberals by limiting the electorate?

Answer 45

BY LIMITING THE ELECTORATE:

• CLs were in favour of a representative democracy rather than direct, popular democracy
• J.S MILL believed that only those with an appropriate formal education should be allowed to vote
• He also feared that a popular democracy might lead to a ‘tyranny of the majority’

Question 46

Explain the modern liberalism in the state

Answer 46

MODERN LIBERALISM:
Although J.S MILL is strongly associated with CL, he later adapted his view of limited government to allow for the state intervention to assist the poor who were experiencing injustice in society and the economy. T.H Green continued to reinterpret the role of the state so that it had a larger role in both society and the economy:

• The state should promote equality of opportunity through education and reductions those unable to defend themselves against deprivation, such as the unemployed, the chronically sick and the elderly.
• John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) key word, ‘The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money’, was a rational construct that argued against Smith’s laissez-faire economics. The state, keynes argued was capable of managing the economy so as to secure full employment. As a ML, he wished to rectify the negative consequences of economic downturns as he felt mass employment negated individual freedom. These economic ideas are known as Keynesianism
• Recent liberals such as Rawls argue that the state should also take a more productive role in reducing inequality within society and preventing social injustice and Friedan argued that the state was the structure in which to guarantee societal and economic equality of opportunity for women

Question 47

Explain the core ideas/principle of rationalism according to liberalism

Answer 47

The enlightenment was an intellectual movement of the (18th inspired by scientists and philosophers such as Francis Bacon, Issac Newton, Rene Descartes and Immanuel Kant). What united them in their ideas was a positive view of human nature, particularly concerning rationality as they believed that humans were capable of reason and logic.

As locke argued ‘reason must be out last judge and guide in everything’. Unlike Conservatives, whose belief in intellectual imperfection meant that they doubted humans possessed such aptitudes, liberals believed that rationalism enabled individuals to both define their own best interests and make their own moral choices, free from external authorities such as the state and the church. Whereas conservatives fear intellectual fallibility and cling to empiricism, customs and tradition to guide them, liberals have far more confidence in their intellectual ability to construct theories to create a progressive society

Question 48

Explain how classical liberalism has been influenced by rationalistic ideas?

Answer 48

CLASSICAL LIBERALISM:

• Locke’s ideas of constitutional and representative government (as opposed to monarchical government), proved hugely influential to England’s Glorious Revolution of 1688 and to the Uk’s Bill of rights 1689 as well to the american constitution
• Adam Smith’s the wealth of nations is one of the most important expressions of economic theory within liberalism. Smith argued that capitalism functions best when the state takes a laissez-faire approach. These ideas resonate today with the Trump administration’s flirtation with tariffs and protected markets being criticised because they contradict the principles of Smith
• Mill’s concept of negative liberty/freedom has been hugely influential in countries such as the UK and Us in determining the parameters of state intervention, the autonomy of the individual and the atomistic nature of the society

Question 49

Explain how modern liberalism has been influenced by rationalistic ideas?

Answer 49

MODERN LIBERALISM:

• T.H GREEN’s positive freedom, which urged state intervention to assist individual freedom, was a key rationalistic updating of CL that informed the ideas of a state-sponsored welfare state
• Mill’s later ideas such as universal education anticipated Green’s positive freedom by arguing that the state must be an enabling state, facilitating developmental individualism. However, MLs agree with CLs on the desirability of free-market economy.
• Keynesian economics, although differing entirely free from laissez-faire economics, was equally rationalistic in its conception
• Rawl’s ideas of equality and social justice is a perfect example of abstract rational thought

Question 50

Explain the core idea/principle of equality and social justice according to liberalism

Answer 50

EQUALITY AND SOCIAL JUSTICE:

Liberalism was initially focused on foundational equality (the premise that all individuals are born with equal rights) and the rule of law so that no individual could be exempt from society structures as no one should be above the law.

• There are numerous examples of foundational equality in practice today such as the UK’s human right ac and the US bill of rights, both of which legally protect what liberals consider to be the natural and inalienable rights of individuals
• Discussing what constitutes foundational equality has been problematic for CLs, who largely ignored (apart from MILL) gender and racial inequality in society. ML is the strand of liberalism most associated with supporting full foundational equality.
• Wollstonecraft argued forcefully in the (18th that women were denied equality in terms of property ownership and political representation. She also argued that women were discriminated against within the workplace as they were denied access to many professions. This theme was continued by Friedan, who argued for legal and economic parity and equality of opportunity in the second half of the (20th)
• Martin Luther King and the civil rights movement demonstrated the judicial interpretation of the US constitution was failing to acknowledge all races equally. The civil rights act of 1964 and the voting rights act of 1965 began the process of creating true foundational equality and equality of opportunity for all races within the us.
• MLs still champion women and racial minorities, but also groups that the earlier modern liberals would not have considered (such as homosexuals) or even imagined (in the case of transsexuals)

Question 51

Explain the modern liberal view on equality and social justice

Answer 51

MLs argue that foundational equality in itself is not enough to guarantee equality of opportunity , and to guarantee true social justice individuals must have access to a full welfare state encompassing education, healthcare, the minimum wage and welfare provisions.

T.H Green’s ideas directly influenced the Beveridge report which was the intellectual basis for the post-war welfare state in the UK.

Rawls, one of the most important exponents of ML, constructed a rational model which he described in his major work, ‘A theory of Justice’ (1971) to demonstrated not just need for social justice but the inherent logic of it.

Using an abstract ‘veil of ignorance’, Rawls posited that if individuals were asked to choose what type of society an individual would prefer and were ignorant of their own circumstances, they would choose a society with little inequality,

• The veil of ignorance was a rationalistic idea based on what Rawls described as a ‘purely hypothetical situation. Nothing resembling it need ever take place;.
• Rawls conception of social justice (he used the term ‘distributive justice’ was that inequality in a modern capitalist society could be justified as long as those who do well economically do not do so at the expense of the least well-off in society. In other words, individuals should not be allowed to prosper at the expense of others.
• Although society was a meritocracy and would produce unequal outcomes, all individuals would have an equality of opportunity as the state would intervene, via a welfare state to allow everyone equal life chances

Question 52

Explain the core idea/principle of liberal democracy in relation to liberalism

Answer 52

When Locke was writing in the (17th, many governments in Europe were monarchies and the state was run by authoritarian elites. Locke’s ideas were therefore a reaction to his perception of illegitimate government, enforced on the people rather than being given freely. The concept of liberal democracy is underpinned by the social contract of Locke, whereby the government only holds power in trust for the people who it serves. Government, Locke argued, should only be by consent as this was the only legitimate basis for authority.

Liberal democracy was initially representative democracy, which offered only a very limited form of democracy. This was the case in the early years of the US, where only male property owners were allowed to vote.

• Edmund Burke who many claim was as much as a liberal thinker as he was a conservative thinker, also argued for the importance of representative democracy, asserting that a voter elected a representative to make decisions based on his own judgement and not that of the electorate. ‘Your representative owes you, not his industry only but his judgement; and he betrays, instead of serving you if he sacrifices to your opinion’
• Mill, like the US Founding Fathers, feared the dominance of the working class if they were given the vote. He argued for plural votes for the educated and wealthy to prevent his own class being swept aside by the proletariat
• Mill, like locke and Wollstonecraft has therefore been categorised as favouring elite democracy, whereby the established exercised the real power and has significantly more influence than the ordinary voter

Such ideas have given way to full emancipation in western democracies and MLs accept that each individual should have a vote. However, the defining feature of liberal democracy, both classical and modern is that it involves more than just free and fair elections. It also includes safeguards of individual freedoms, particularly against the tyranny of the majority.

Question 53

state and explain the six key points of liberal democratic theory that influences both classical and modern liberal thinkers

Answer 53

Barbara Goodwin argues that there are six key points of liberal democratic theory and the influence of both CL and ML thinkers is clearly evident.

Supremacy of the people - While CLs accept this as a broad concept of the social contract, this does not equate to full democratic representation.

• MLs are insistent that supremacy of the people means that every adult should have the vote
• However, in the US, the electoral college remains as a filter against the ‘tyranny of the majority’.

The consent of the governed as the basis of legitimacy - A concept that unites both forms of liberalism: elections provide frequent opportunities for the governed to register their consent

The rule of law and peaceful methods of conflict resolution - the rule of law forms part of the social contract between the governed and the governors

The existence of a common good or public interest - CL struggles with such concepts as it views society as atomistic and therefore any collective will is difficult for classical liberals to support. The developmental individualism of Mill and T.H Green and the social justice of Rawls base their version of society on more collective aims such as the welfare state

The value of the individual as a rational, moral, active citizen - Both strands of liberalism can accept this definition

Political equality and equal civil rights for all individuals - CL and ML are united on this
- Friedan championed the rights of women in both respects while Rawls theory of justice argued that not only were such rights a necessity it was also a rational choice for individuals to make when attempting to ascertain the principles of society

Question 54

Explain the different views and tensions within liberalism

Answer 54

The ideological nature of classical liberalism (CL) and modern liberalism (ML) means that these ideas are difficult to reconcile as each posits a fundamentally different understanding of what constitutes: freedom and the individual, which in turn informs the role of the state in regard to society and the economy.

Liberalism’s attitudes towards freedom as CL and ML have fundamentally different definitions of what constitutes freedom

Question 55

Explain classical liberal’s view on freedom and the individual

Answer 55

(a) classical liberalism:
CL views freedom in a negative sense, which involves freedom from constraint and interference where possible. J.S Mill argued that an individual’s actions should be unencumbered unless they directly negatively affect others, in a theory that has become known as the ‘harm principle’. This led Mill (like Locke) to advocate for a strong belief in tolerance of the views and actions of others. Mill therefore advocated for a society where there was a freedom of thought, discussion, religion and assembly.

Locke and Mill advocated egotistical individualism, whereby individuals were self-reliant, self-interested and rational. He argued that individuals were sovereign beings capable of free will and therefore should organise their own lives. Such individuals would not only be freer in a negative freedom-based society but minimal encroachments would facilitate their development as individuals. These ideas influenced the Founding Fathers in their creation of the US constitution, with the saying ‘when government grows, out liberty withers; being attributed to Thomas Jefferson.

Locke argued that men’s lives were their own and arbitrary government would enslave the,. This idea was expanded by Isaiah Berlin, who argued that when MLs expand the role of the state for paternalistic functions they do so at the expense of individual liberty. The paternalistic aspect of state intervention for CLs (and NLs) is therefore oppressive.

Question 56

State examples that illustrate the paternalistic aspect of state intervention for CLs and NLs is therefore oppressive

Answer 56

• Compulsory welfare state require taxation and while individuals are free to opt out of these services they cannot opt out of paying the taxation that fulfils them
• J.S Mill argued that the individual had the right to non-interference, even if their actions cause them individual harm. This is as relevant now as in Mill’s time, with NLs such as Nozick arguing that individuals have the right to consume drugs or end their own life if they so wish.
• Perhaps the most memorable example is the so-called Spanner case (1990) which was named after the arresting officer. Fifteen Gay men were convicted of assault occasioning actual bodily harm even though all the injured parties were engaged in acts of consensual sadomasochism. Perhaps J.S Mill had such trysts in mind when he wrote that, ‘Over himself, over his mind and body, the Individual is sovereign’, but this case illustrates the state encroaching an individual freedom

Question 57

Explain Modern liberalism’s view on freedom and the individual

Answer 57

MODERN LIBERALISM: ML can be seen as both a continuation and a contradiction to CL. J.S Mill has sometime been called a transitional liberal, as his later ideas advocated aspects of developmental individualism, such as universal education, which implies positive freedom as the state would have to facilitate such as development. However, it is T.H Green and Rawls who are most associated with the development of modern liberalism and the broader understanding of freedom and individuality. Green asserted that freedom was not to be left alone but that it should also be viewed positively with the creation of constructive assistance to encourage individual freedom.

MLs broadly agree with CLs on the concept of self-reliable but argue that the state must offer a ‘hand up’ if every individual is to achieve this goal. The problem with negative freedom is that the lack of assistance from the state only compounds social and economic disadvantage. Positive freedom evens the playing field, so that all individuals can enjoy similar equality of opportunity and social justice,

Green’s ideas provided the ideological and intellectual template for the Uk’s post-war welfare state. They also informed Rawls ‘A theory of justice’ argument, in which he maintained that societal position and particular circumstance (race, gender, social class, innate intelligence) were of huge importance in whether an individual thrived or failed. Rawls conclusions led him to advocate a substantial increase in the role of the state.

For liberal feminists such as Friedan, both strands of liberalism has been cited in terms of women achieving parity with men in society. Citing Mill’s harm principle, she successfully built on the ideas of Wollstonecraft to demonstrate that the freedoms of women were being harmed by sexual discrimination that was inconsistent with the social contractual agreement made in the US constitution

Question 58

Explain the neo-liberalism view on freedom and the individual

Answer 58

While Mls argue that their version of liberalism is a continuation of CL is classifying freedom and individualism, NLs (best described as contemporary versions of CL) would disagree. To them, ML is a betrayal of the core values of the limited state and egotistical individualism. Nozick’s and Rand’s ideas were both influenced by the CL Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) a German Enlightenment thinker who argued that individuals in society should not be treated as a thing or a resource.

NL ideas of reducing the size of the state, free markets and laissez-faire economics were aspects of both Thatcher’s and Reagan’s administrations. However, it would be incorrect to describe these politicians as NL, as both were also influenced by neo-conservative ideas.

Question 59

Explain the role of state and the economy to modern and classical liberals

Answer 59

All aspects of liberalism subscribe to a mechanistic theory of the state, as if it were a machine to serve the individual. CLs believe that the role of the state should be strictly limited to maintaining law and order, property rights and securing the society from invasion. The optimal size of the government is therefore small. MLs, on the other hand, argue that the state should create conditions of freedom to allow individuals to reach their full potential.

The ideas of J.S Mill are often associated with CL and he remains a much-quoted philosopher for contemporary NLs. However, his later ideas also anticipated ML and as a key thinker he illustrates the tensions within liberal thought when attempting to balance human individuality and autonomy while also furthering developmental individualism in relation to a more interventionist state. In Mill’s ideas on the involvement of the state, it is possible to argue that modern liberalism was the natural continuation and evolution of CL. This is very much what thinks like T.H Green believed arguing in the latter half of the (19th that the question that should be preoccupying liberalism was no longer state and society about leaving the individual alone but whether the state was assisting the individual in fulfilling their potential

Question 60

Explain What T.H green argued about CL’s concept of the role of the state and the economy

Answer 60

T.H Green argued that liberty and freedom as defined by CL was worthless if individuals lacked the capacity to exercise those liberties. He argued that the social constraints on freedom were manifest and the state must recognise the existence of common duties as a way of promoting individuals capacities. ML therefore advocates an enabling state, which facilitates individuals to be truly free by reaching their potential. Such ideas were influential on Asquith’s Liberal government, as the following policies were examples of the state trying to facilitate the freedom of the individual:

• The Old Age Pensions Act 1908: provided old-age pensions
• The Labour Exchanges Act 1909: assisted the unemployed into employment
• The National Insurance Act 1911: provided welfare benefits
• The Trade Unions Act 1913: improved worker’s rights

Question 61

How did modern liberalism inspire the Beveridge report in relation to the role of the state and the economy

Answer 61

ML inspired the Beveridge report (1942) which was the intellectual foundation for the postwar welfare state and went even further than Asquith, as it proposed that the state tackle the five giants that were impeding the freedom of the individual within the UK: want, ignorance, disease, squalor and idleness. The development of the welfare state to address these social problems, transformed the UK state from a limited state to an enabling state, where state intervention within society was dramatically increased. Compounded to this intervention in society (funded by increased taxation), the role of the state was also transformed by ML’s preference for the state economic management of John Maynard Keynes over the laissez-faire economics of Adam Smith, Keynes argued that government could prevent economic slumps and the devastating unemployment that followed by managing demand and stimulating the economy

Question 62

How has modern liberalism transformed the state?

Answer 62

ML seemed to be in the ascendency, with the transformation of the role of the state becoming the norm in postwar Europe and America. John Rawl’s ‘Theory of Justice’ (1971) added a sophisticated rational argument that built on the work of J.S Mill and T.H Green. Rawls made this clear in his three principles of justice:

• Individuals had to have the same set of absolute liberties
• There must be equal opportunities for all
• Although some inequalities were inevitable, there must be a priority to help the disadvantaged

Rawls called the last principle the ‘difference principle’. He proposed, via a hypothetical construct, that citizens veiled from knowledge of their own circumstances would choose a society that recognised a common good, meritocratic excellence and fairness. So, while Rawls recognised that a meritocracy would mean some individuals were well rewarded for their efforts, the state would have to ensure equality of opportunity, be it by supporting a minimum wage, ensuring society was free from discrimination or increasing state spending (and taxation to fund an enabling state)

Question 63

state quotes from liberal thinkers on the role of the state

Answer 63

The Cl Locke and ML Rawls had different visions for the role of the state within society and the economy.

‘Government has no other end, but the preservation of property’ - Locke

‘the greatest danger to liberty today comes from the men who are most needed and most powerful in modern government, namely, the efficient expert administrators exclusively concerned with what they regard as public good’ - Hayek

‘Want is one only of five giants on the road to reconstruction, the others are disease, ignorance, squalor and idleness’ - Beveridge

‘The only purpose for which power can rightfully be exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will is to prevent harm to others’ - Mills

‘Historically one of the main defects of constitutional government has been the failure to insure the fair value of political liberty. The necessary corrective steps have not been taken, indeed, they never seem to have been seriously entertained’ - Rawls

Question 64

Explain John’s Locke key themes on liberalism

Answer 64

JOHN LOCKE:

Human Nature: Humans are guided by self-interest but are concerned for others

The state: The state should only govern by consent

Society: Natural laws and natural rights of society predate the state

The economy: Private property is a natural right and the state’s role is merely to arbitrate between individuals competing for trade and resources

Question 65

Explain Mary Wollstonecraft’s key themes and ideas on liberalism

Answer 65

MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT:

Human nature: Both men and women are capable of rational though

The state: Monarchical states should be replaced by republican states that entrench women’s rights

Society: Society ‘infantilised’ women and this inhibited female individualism

The economy: Liberated women would thrive and enhance the free-market economy

Question 66

Explain John Stuart Mill’s key themes and ideas on liberalism

Answer 66

JOHN STUART MILL:

Human nature: Human nature is rational but not fixed and is capable of progressing to higher levels

The state: The state should be a representative democracy and be mindful of minority rights

Society: individuality should coexist with tolerance and self-improvement

The economy: laissez-faire capitalism promotes both individual and progress

Question 67

Explain John Rawls key themes and ideas on liberalism

Answer 67

JOHN RAWLS:

Human nature: Humans can be selfish and value individual freedom. However, they are sympathetic to those less fortunate than them.

The state: An enabling state will assist developmental individualism via public spending on services

Society: Rawl’s rationalistic ‘veil of ignorance’ argued that individuals would choose a society that offered opportunities for the less fortunate to improve their condition

The economy: The state’s obligation to disadvantaged citizens would temper free-market capitalism

Question 68

Explain Betty Friedan’s key themes and ideas on liberalism

Answer 68

BETTY FRIEDAN:

Human nature: Culture has evolved so that human nature is so patriarchal and discriminatory towards women

The state: The state should intervene in the public sphere to prevent discrimination against women

Society: Society is patriarchal and needs reforming

The economy: Liberated women would thrive and enhance the free-market economy. Legislation must prevent women from being discriminated against in the workplace.