Conservatism

Question 1

define hierarchy

Answer 1

The Conservative belief that society is naturally organised in fixed tiers, where one’s position is not based on individual ability.

Question 2

define authority

Answer 2

For Conservatives, this is the idea that people in higher positions in society are best able to make decisions in the interests of the whole society; authority thus comes from above.

Question 3

define change to conserve

Answer 3

That society should adapt to changing circumstances rather than reject change outright and risk rebellion and/or revolution

Question 4

define atomism

Answer 4

That society is made up of self-interested and self-sufficient individuals (also known as egoistical individualism).

Question 5

define noblesse oblige

Answer 5

The duty of the wealthy and privileged to look after those less fortunate

Question 6

define anti-permissiveness

Answer 6

A rejection of permissiveness, which is the belief that people should
make their own moral choices, suggesting there is no objective right and wrong

Question 7

define radical

Answer 7

Belief whose ideas favour drastic political, economic and social change

Question 8

define human imperfection

Answer 8

The traditional conservative belief that humans are flawed in a number of ways which makes them incapable of making good
decisions for themselves.

Question 9

define laissez-faire

Answer 9

A preference towards minimal government intervention in business
and the state.

Question 10

define empricism

Answer 10

The idea that knowledge comes from real experience and not from abstract theories

Question 11

Explain the origins of conservatism

Answer 11

ORIGINS OF CONSERVATISM:

Although conservative policies should not be confused with reactionary policies, the origins of conservatism were themselves a reaction to the policies of the Enlightenment.

At the heart of the enlightenment was a belief in reason and progress towards an ideal society, underpinned by tolerance equality and individual rights

By the second half of the (18th and after the American Revolution (1775-1783) it became difficult for politicians and philosophers to argue against these principles without appearing regressive and intolerant

At first, the french revolution of 1789 seemed to validate the optimistic spirit of the Enlightenment: the dramatic overthrow of the despotic monarchy, the rejection of ‘irrational’ religious assumptions and the creation of a new republic founded on ‘liberty, equality and fraternity’ - were all greeted with enthusiasm by European Intellectuals

The course of the french revolution and the threat posed to peace across the europe by the new french regime, proved a watershed in political theory and paved the way for a new sort of ideological theory, one that would respect the case for change while warning of its dangers.

The political thinker who epitomised this new approach was Edmund Burke, the so-called ‘father of conservatism’ (Burke worried about revolution as it could overthrow all monarchies but supported some beneficial change

Question 12

Explain conservatism as an ideology in summary

Answer 12

Conservatism is a durable ideology that has responded to a series of remarkable changes over two centuries - however, it is widely misunderstood. This arises from two paradoxes

1 - Conservatism is not just about conserving and avoiding reform - instead it is about ‘changing to conserve’ - a certain type of change is the only way to conserve what is worth conserving.
Change small aspects of tradition to maintain tradition - equilibrium e,g royal family role being smaller or a reformed HOL as changes ensure the survival of institutions through protection

2 - In the Uk, conservatism is not synonymous with the ideas of the conservative party - which is ideologically eclectic, upholding liberal and conservative principles.

Eclectic refers to a mixture of ideas, things or diverse e.g CP ideologically varied e.g factions of a political party

As a political idea conservatism has developed considerably:

• traditional conservatism
• one-nation conservatism
• the new right

Question 13

Explain Traditional conservatism

Answer 13

TRADITIONAL CONSERVATISM:

Traditional conservatism emerged, in part, as a reaction to the rational principles of the Enlightenment in the (18th). It argued that pragmatism (a practical attitude), empiricism (evidence and experience) and tradition were vital in maintaining society.

Question 14

Explain One-nation conservatism

Answer 14

ONE-NATION CONSERVATISM:
One-nation conservatism developed in the late (19th and evolved further in the (20th). One-nation conservatism advocated more state interference in both society and the economy to preserve society - to prevent conflict/revolution between the classes due to inequality

Question 15

Explain the new right

Answer 15

THE NEW RIGHT:
The new right emerged as a force in the 1970s. A marriage between neo-liberalism and neo-conservatism, it argued that one-nation conservatism had sanctioned too many changes to the role of the state and the economy and had lost touch with true conservative values - e.g NR thinkers would be critical of the heavy tax of the conservative governments in the recent years

Question 16

State core ideas/principles of conservatism

Answer 16

pragmatism – flexible approach to society with decisions made on the basis of what works – to cover links between pragmatism and traditional conservative and one-nation philosophy

tradition – accumulated wisdom of past societies and a
connection between the generations – to cover how this creates stability, links with organic change, and enhances humans’ security

human imperfection – humans are flawed which makes them incapable of making good decisions for themselves – to cover the three aspects of psychological, moral and intellectual imperfection

organic society/state – society/state is more important than any individual parts – to cover how this links to the underpinning of the beliefs of authority and hierarchy, and a cohesive society

paternalism – benign power exerted from above by the state, that governs in the interests of the people – to cover the different interpretations by traditional (an authoritarian approach, the state knows what is best so the people must do what they are told) and one-nation conservatives (there is an obligation on the wealthy to look after those who are unable to look after themselves)and why it is rejected by New Right Conservatives

libertarianism (specifically neo-liberalism) – upholds liberty, seeking to maximise autonomy and free choice, mainly in the economy – to cover the moral and economic values associated with this idea.

Question 17

Summary the tensions and views of conservatism

Answer 17

The differing views and tensions within conservatism:

• traditional conservative − commitment to hierarchical and paternalistic values

• one-nation conservative − updating of traditional
conservatism in response to the emergence of capitalism

• New Right − the marriage of neo-liberal and neoconservative ideas and include:
o neo-liberal: principally concerned with free-market
economics and atomistic individualism
o neo-conservative: principally concerned with the fear of social fragmentation, tough on law and order and public morality.

Question 18

Summary key thinkers of conservatism

Answer 18

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)
• Order – an ordered society should balance the human need
to lead a free life.
• Human nature – humans are needy, vulnerable and easily led
astray in attempts to understand the world around them.

Edmund Burke (1729–1797)
• Change – political change should be undertaken with great
caution and organically.
• Tradition and empiricism – practices passed down for
generations should be respected.

Michael Oakeshott (1901–1990)
• Human imperfection – suggestion that society is
unpredictable and humans are imperfect.
• Pragmatism – belief that conservatism is about being
pragmatic.

Ayn Rand (1905–1982)
• Objectivism – this advocates the virtues of rational
self-interest.
• Freedom – this supports a pure, laissez-faire capitalist
economy.

Robert Nozick (1938–2002)
• Libertarianism – based on Kant’s idea that individuals in
society cannot be treated as a thing, or used against their will
as a resource.
• Self-ownership – individuals own their bodies, talents,
abilities and labour.

Question 19

Explain human imperfection as a core idea and principle of conservatism

Answer 19

Human imperfection is a core feature of most aspects of conservatism. Noel O’Sullivan argued that traditional conservatism view humans imperfection in three distinct categories:

(i) Morally imperfect: Humans are selfish creatures motivated by base impulses (desires)
(ii) Intellectually imperfect: Reality is beyond rational understanding. Consequently, abstract ideas or theories will always be flawed
(iii) Psychologically imperfect: Humans are security driven and social dependent. We rely on tradition and culture for an identity

Question 20

Explain Thomas Hobbes view on Human imperfection

Answer 20

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) argued in Leviathan (1651) (metaphor that all-powerful state needs to be controlled like the all-powerful serpent defeated by the gods in the book) that humans are imperfect and ruthlessly self-interested, claiming that human imperfection cannot be avoided:

• Humans desire power and material gratification and are distrustful of others. This is out species natural state, which Hobbes calls the ‘state of nature’ - a violent, fearful place where humans are in never-ending conflict as they pursue their selfish desires.
• The state of nature describes society before the existence of the state, where individuals live without laws. Here, life would be little more than a struggle for power, a ‘perpetual and restless desire for power and power that only ceaseth in death’. Existence would be bleak - a violent anarchy where life would be ‘solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short’.

Although he thought humans intellectually imperfect, he did not think them wholly irrational, claiming that they would recognise the ‘state of nature’ as hell on earth and would realise that they needed protecting from themselves. He argued that individuals would seek a social contract: surrendering individual autonomy to a sovereign monarch, who in return would provide order through his authority. This would allow society to develop and humans to live collectively and without fear. For Hobbes, human nature is also psychological in that its primary interest is self-preservation: ‘the first and fundamental law of nature, which is seek peace and follow it’.

Question 21

Explain Edmund Burke’s view on human imperfection

Answer 21

Edmund Burke (1729-97) agreed with Hobbes that humans are imperfect but disagreed considerably on the extent of imperfection:

• Burke did not think humans are ruthlessly individualistic; rather they are naturally communal as their imperfection compels them to band together in supportive communities.
• He agreed with Hobbes that humans are capable of making mistakes but not to the same destructive levels. The scope of human reason and understanding is poor, so people are more likely to fail than succeed.
• He though that decision making based on rationalistic ideas of abstract thought is ill-advised and that change should only be cautiously and empirically considered: ‘Politics ought to be adjusted to human reasonings but to human nature, of which reason is but a part and by no means the greatest part’.

Question 22

Explain Michael Oakeshott (1901-90) view on human imperfection

Answer 22

Michael Oakeshott (1901-90) beliefs have more in common with Burke than Hobbes. He argued that humans are ‘fragile and fallible’ but that they are capable of benevolence. Like Burke, Oakeshott argued that society is organic and consists of intricate customs and traditions that provide consolation, comfort and happiness. However, the nirvana promised by utopian societies is unobtainable, as perfection cannot be created by imperfect creatures. He argues for the ‘politics of faith’, where decision making is grounded in empiricism and not rationalism:

• Faith in rationalism is misplaced and those who act on ‘the authority of’ their ‘own reason’ rather than their experiences, will fail.
• Oakeshott’s conclusion on intellectual imperfection led him to argue for the ‘politics of scepticism’, which concluded that the implementation of abstract ideas often leads to unintended negative consequences. Rationalists underestimate the complexity of reality, failing to comprehend that in attempting to improve society or the economy they may make matters worse. He warns to be mindful that when rendering changes for betterment the ‘cure is not worse than the disease’

Question 23

Explain the core idea and principle of organic society/state

Answer 23

Conservatives believe that society is not created but emerges and grows, developing like an organism. Hobbes belief that the state precedes society is vital in understanding how conservatives understand reality. The natural rights and laws favoured by John Locke are a rationalistic conceit, as individual rights are utterly dependent on the ability of the state to maintain them. Burke agreed with Hobbes, arguing that these ‘pretended rights are all extremes and in proportion as they are metaphysically true, they are morally and politically false’. Individuals rights are dependent upon law and order and only the state has the authority to give individual rights a practical meaning. Ironically, given that conservatism is so grounded in empiricism, Hobbes ideas of social contract is rationalistic in origin:

• Traditional conservatives such as Hobbes, Burke and Oakeshott believed that once the state provides the necessary order, society will emerge organically, maturing into a complicated organism of traditional and customs
• Hobbes believed in an absolute monarchy, where the sovereign (the personification of the state) controlled every aspect of society (law, religion and parliament), as well as the economy (private property and taxation). However, traditional conservatives such as Burke and Oakeshott as well as one-nation conservatives and neo-conservatives favoured societal ideas established during the 1688 glorious revolution. These ideas, which are liberal in origin, limited the powers of the monarch and established the principle of parliamentary sovereignty and the idea of representative government. John Locke claimed that the purpose of ‘Two Treatises of Government’ (1689) was to justify William III’s accession to the throne.
• Burke wrote of ‘little platoons’ of localised communities that retain their identity and enable wider integration within the nation. Such communities are bound by affection and cooperation and give structure and meanings to our lives. The organic state, with its history, customs and traditions is vitally important for informing both the present and future

Question 24

In relation to the organic society/state explain the conservative view on maintaining society

Answer 24

MAINTAINING SOCIETY:

The multiple traditions, customs and institutions of an organic society give individuals a sense of ‘rootedness’ and belonging, and in return individuals have duties and obligations to maintain society. The state is an organism that must evolve if it, and society are to continue to flourish. Burke’s ideas of ‘change to conserve’ where the state maintains society, has influenced not just traditional conservatives but also one-nation conservatives and neo-conservatives in their practicalities of statecraft:

• The past is to be revered and ancient institutions should not be tampered with but if there are defects or abuses which harm the workings of the organic society they must be removed.
• Inaction can damage the organic society: the french and russian revolutions were the consequence of disorder in society. It is for this reason that Burke argued that ‘a state without the means of some change is without the means of conservatism’

Question 25

In relation to organic society/state explain the conservative view on an unequal society

Answer 25

AN UNEQUAL SOCIETY:
Some parts of the organism are more important than others and inequality is natural. The organic society is hierarchical; there is a natural order in where each individual has their place. Individuals are of unequal talents and ability and for Hobbes, Burke and Oakeshott this was a practical reality of human existence:

• For Hobbes, society was to be ruled by an absolute monarch governing a ‘commonwealth’ arranged by rank and influence
• For Burke, the aristocracy should lead as they were wiser and stronger than their inferiors and they had a responsibility for the lower orders
• Oakeshott’s championing of tradition has been seen as a justification for defending established institutions, such as the HOL or the electoral college for such reform

Since the mid-to-late nineteenth century, all current conservative thinkers, starting with one-nation conservatives, have accepted the concept of democracy. However, society remains hierarchical even within a modern democracy and the paternalism of noblesse oblige can be found in postwar one-nation conservatism and neo-conservatism. Sometimes society must evolve but any change must be cautiously for fear of unintended change.

Question 26

Explain the core idea and principle of pragmatism in relation to conservatism

Answer 26

Pragmatism (fuelled by reason rather than faith) is a core value of conservatism. Pragmatic thinkers are informed by empiricism and have a deep distrust of the abstract theories favoured by political ideas such as liberalism and socialism. Burke’s idea of ‘change to conserve’ influenced Conservative PMs Robert Peel and Benjamin Disraeli. Peel’s ‘Tamworth Manifesto’ (1834) argued that conservatism must be pragmatic and not reactionary. He put this into practice in his acceptance of the Great Reform Act of 1832, which gave middle class men the vote for the first time, pragmatically accepting that this emerging class of the Industrial Revolution must be integrated into the political system. Disraeli approached the Artisan Dwellings Act 1875 which dealt with slum clearance in a similar pragmatic fashion.

All of these changes were derived from empiricism and with the aim of making society more stable. Later, one-nation conservatism embodied in conservative governments from 1951-1979, pragmatically accepted and continued the radical changes made to British society by Attlee’s Labour Government, such as state intervention in the economy and the creation of the welfare state.

Question 27

Explain tradition in relation to conservatism

Answer 27

Tradition is seen as the accumulated wisdom of the past that underpin society. Religion is perhaps the most important tradition. Burke perceived the religion as ‘our comfort and one great source of civilisation’. Moreover, religious traditions bind society together to the extent that he argued that atheism must be suppressed as it was destabilising. The rationalistic ideas of the Enlightenment and the rise of secular state have, since the 1960s social revolution, increasingly weakened Judaeo-Christian religion. Oakeshott argued that with the decline of religion, those who would have once embraced its values are now inclined towards abstract ideas and potentially harmful rationalist thinking as a kind of intellectual development.

For Burke, traditions were vital as they embodied continuity which in turn advanced peacefulness the ultimate political goal. He argued that society was a ‘partnership between those who are to be born’. Tradition, custom and habit should govern human action, not abstract thought. Accumulated wisdom is found within long-standing institutions such as monarchy, ancient schools and universities and communities, as well as the aforementioned religion. Humans should trust traditions to guide them. Burke called this ‘wisdom without reflection’. Traditions allow individuals to feel belonging, a sense of identity, reinforcing the social cohesion of society. Abandoning traditions is dangerous. As Oakshott argued, ‘What has stood the test of time is good and must not be lightly cast aside’. For this reason, neo-conservatives ((20th conservatives influenced by traditional conservatives) are sometimes pro-religion even though they may be unbelievers because of the societal function that it serves. They can cite numerous examples to demonstrate the damaging consequences of when long-standing traditions are abolished in favour of rationalist replacements such as the French and Russian revolutions. Conservative thinkers are distrustful of constitutional changes if they are, as Oakeshott has warned, based on the unproven promises of abstract theories.

Question 28

Explain Paternalism in relation to conservatism

Answer 28

PATERNALISM:

Conservatives believe society is unequal and arranged in a natural hierarchy, in which the ruling class had a noblesse oblige relationship to the weaker elements. This paternal responsibility is derived from a hierarchical position of rank to help those less fortunate and who cannot act in their own interests.

• Paternalism is also a pragmatic belief as if the state fails to counter societal problems it risks upsetting the established order and the existence of the organic society - ‘risk of rebellion’.
• Benjamin Disraeli, Conservative PM (1868 and 1874-80), argued for what was later called one-nation conservatism, in part influenced by the ideas of Burke.
• Consequently, the ruling elite of the late (19th accepted their obligations to the new industrial working class by enacting social reforms and limited welfarism to help the poorest in society and to preserve stability

After WW2, paternalistically motivated one-nation conservatives increasingly intervened in both society and the economy. As PM 1957-63, Harold Macmillan combined state ownership and private enterprise, continuing socialist principles. His adoption of a mixed economy (mix of capitalism and socialism) therefore reframed Disraeli’s one nation conservatism and paternalism for the (20th. Neo -conservatives argued that the unintended consequences of the paternalistic welfarism of the post-war period were that those they were trying to help became hopelessly dependent on the state and that the societal obligations of traditional conservatism had been forgotten. Neo-conservative paternalism is therefore akin to paternal tough love; it acknowledges the role of the state to intervene in society but wishes to narrow the parameter and scale of its assistance

Question 29

Explain libertarianism

Answer 29

LIBERTARIANISM:

Libertarianism is a political philosophy that emphasises the negative freedom (freedom from interference) and advocates minimal state intervention. Liberaltarianism was inherent in traditional conservatism as Burke supported Adam Smith, the champion of laissez-faire economics. The traditional conservatism of the (18th saw a minimal role for the state in society and the economy). It was only with the growth of the state and welfare spending that income tax in the Uk became a compulsory requirement of the state on its citizens, Robert Peel reintroduced tax in 1842 - it had briefly existed from 1799-1802 to pay for the Napoleonic Wars. In the US income tax had existed on and off from 1861 (when President Lincoln signed it into law to help pay for the defeat of the Confederate states in the American Civil War) but only in 1913 with the (16th amendment to the US constitution did income tax become a permanent feature

Question 30

Explain the neo liberal view on society in relation to libertarianism

Answer 30

Neo-liberals (also known as libertarians) believe in an atomistic society made up of self-interested and self-sufficient individuals, Ayn Rand (1905-82) is associated with the term ‘atomistic individualism’ where autonomous individuals, seek rationalised self-fulfilment:

• On Rand terms, society does not exist as we are, but a loose collection of independent beings. Neo-liberals view of human nature is quite different from the thinking of traditional conservatives.
• They reject the pessimistic human imperfection, preferring the rationalism of the Enlightenment, that people are able to order their lives on a moral and logical basis.
• neo liberals like Robert Nozick (1938-2002) and Rand reject empiricism, which puts them at odds with conservative thinkers like Burke and Oakeshott
• Neo liberals believe in egotistical individualism, whereby the rights of the individual are more important than those of the state
• They believe in negative freedom whereby the individual should be free from as many external constraints (including the authority of religion) as possible
• The paternalism of noblesse oblige restricts individuals development as it limits choice and prevents them from learning from their mistakes
• Neo-liberalism challenges the idea of traditional conservative hierarchies and the legitimacy of the state with all of its organic traditions. Society is atomistic and should be organised instead on meritocratic terms - Nozick argued that ‘there are only individual people, different individual people with their own lives’. The minimal will allow the emergence and co existences of voluntary-formed communities that individuals are free to interreact to, interact with or ignore at their own discretion. The states role is that of a ‘night-watchman’, overseeing the rule of law and protecting the rights of the individuals from criminals and foreign invaders.

Question 31

Explain the neo-liberal view on the growth of the state

Answer 31

Neo liberals view the steady growth of the state from the (19th as a negative development, with Nozick arguing that ‘tax, for the most part, is theft’ from the individual by the state.

• Neo liberals argue for a massive reduction in tax and state spending on society as both a moral and an economic imperative for individual freedom
• Nozick argued that the state encroaches on the lives of the citizens and that welfarism creates a dependency culture, with the state ‘owning’ individuals
• Neo-liberal economists Friedrich Hayek argued that expensive welfare states should be abolished as they will eventually bankrupt society. He and his disciples point to the huge deficits that developed western economies are running.

Nozick and Rand called for the rolling back of the state’s involvement in society to achieve atomism

• Neo-liberals argue for a radical deregulation and privatisation of services carried out by the state.
• Bodies regarded as obstructive to the free market, like trade unions should have their power curtailed
• Nozick argued that the individual should be ‘left alone’ not just in the economic sphere but also in the social and cultural spheres as well. Rand’s objectivist philosophy saw her place the individuals ‘right to choose’ as paramount on issues such as abortion and homosexuality - tow areas that the state at the time of writing deemed to be immoral and illegal
• Nozick and Rand argue that the growth of the state is the gravest contemporary threat to individual freedom

Question 32

state the different views and tensions in conservatism

Answer 32

• Traditional conservatism
• One-nation conservatism
• New right
• Neo-liberalism
• Neo-conservatism

Question 33

Explain traditional conservatism

Answer 33

. TRADITIONAL CONSERVATISM:

Traditional conservativism (TC) is best understood as a set of reactionary and pragmatic political ideas that were worked out as a response to the French Revolution of 1789, which challenged the hierarchical aristocracy of European society. There are three aspects of TC:

• reactionary TC
• non-reactionary TC
• natural disposition TC

Question 34

Explain traditional conservatism in relation to reactionary TC

Answer 34

(a) Reactionary TC: Partially influenced by the ideas of Hobbes, TC can be understood as a reactionary doctrine that believes in a feudal hierarchic order of society. In the (18th these ideas were challenged by the ideas of the Enlightenment and the events of the French Revolution as well as by the changing dynamics of the state and society caused by the consequences of the Industrial Revolution. TC was therefore a defensive ideology resisting the decline of aristocratic rule. As the rule of the aristocracy declined, so did this autocratic branch of TC.

Question 35

Explain traditional conservatism in relation to non-reactionary TC

Answer 35

(b) Non-reactionary TC: Burke was clear that conservatism must counter Enlightenment ideas, as such rationalist delusions had led to the French Revolution. Conservative ideas of hierarchy, empiricism, tradition and authority, all of which had been undermined by the ideas of the Enlightenment, must be defended as they help maintain societal equilibrium. Unlike its reactionary strand, pragmatic or non-reactionary TC was capable of change, but only after careful consideration. The spirit of Burke’s ideas is evident throughout conservatism in the (19th, which saw the adoption of moderate reforms to keep society stable and a commitment to the free market. Outmoded traditions that could spark revolutionary unrest were changed by careful empirical deliberation. The reforms of Robert Peel illustrate the influence of Burke and Hobbes: the establishment of the Metropolitan Police in 1829 (‘without security there can be no liberty’) and the Repeal of the Corn Laws 1846 (protectionism was an outmoded tradition - free trade would secure societal and economic prosperity - ‘changing to conserve’).

Question 36

Explain natural dispositive TC in relation to conservatism

Answer 36

(c) Natural disposition TC: Oakeshott focuses on the psychological and intellectual aspects of human imperfection (implied in the ideas of Hobbes and Burke) when attempting to describe conservatism. Conservatism is therefore a natural disposition rather than a political idea or ideology. Translating his views into practical politics, he preferred the trusted methods of imperfect institutions and traditions to change; ‘What has stood the test of time is good and must not be lightly cast aside.’ In terms of his politics of faith, he argued that humans’ intellectual inability to comprehend reality means that any abstract thought, divorced from experience, will be flawed. This is why he believed rationalist blueprints of perfect societies and state planning fail and why governments must rely on empirical informed pragmatism to govern. While Burke argued ‘change to conserve’ to maintain an organic society, Oakeshott is less optimistic, arguing that political philosophy should not be expected to provide success in political activity. For Oakeshott, ‘To be conservative, then, is to prefer the familiar to the unknown, to prefer the tried to the untried, fact to mystery, the actual to the possible, the limited to the unbounded, the near to the distant, the sufficient to the superabundant, the convenient to the perfect, present laughter to utopian bliss.’

Question 37

Explain one nation conservatism in relation to early one nation conservatism

Answer 37

) Early-One Nation Conservatism: By the latter half of the (19th governments were beginning to face the consequences of mass industrialisation and the call for socialist reform.
• TC economic policy had always been laissez-faire and society had seen minimal state intervention. However, mass industrialisation caused social inequality, which fanned the flames of possible revolution and new ideas such as revolutionary socialism and anarchism were rational alternatives that scare TCs.

• PM Benjamin Disraeli drew from Burke an admiration for hierarchical aristocracy and organic society. He admired noblesse oblige, the wisdom inherent in traditions and the varied institutions that underpin the organic society, in particular property ownership and the C of E.
• Like Burke, Disraeli loathed doctrines and abstract ideas replacing empiricism. One-nation conservatism was first promoted in one of Disraeli’s novels ‘Sybil or the Two Nations’ (1845) and is sometimes described as an updating of TC in response to the emergence of capitalism.

Disraeli’s ultimate aim was to make society secure - to do this the tensions between the rich and the poor must be addressed while simultaneously renewing a sense of national identity and community. Up to this point, nationalism had strongly been associated with revolution. Therefore, he offered a form of nationalism, based on organic conservatism – where all social classes were part of a family that was ‘the nation’. The elite had a noblesse oblige responsibility to care for the rest of the people - ‘the palace is not safe when the cottage is not happy’. His policies were influenced by empiricism and Burke’s belief that society must ‘change to conserve’. Traditionally, conservatives fear change because the consequences are often unpredictable and can often make things worse, however he introduced one-nation reforms, such as The Representation of the People Act – which enfranchised large parts of the urban male working class, convinced they would guarantee societal stability and attract new voters to the CP

Question 38

Explain later one-nation conservatism

Answer 38

b) Later One-Nation Conservatism: ONC from 1945 to the present day still invokes the paternal ideas of Burke and the examples of Disraeli. It is most commonly associated with Harold Macmillan. As Churchill’s housing minister, Macmillan oversaw the building of 300,000 houses a year after WW2. As well as alleviating housing pressures, he hoped to create ‘a property-owning democracy’ sympathetic to traditional conservative values. As PM between 1957 and 1963, Macmillan championed a conservatism that steered a course between traditional conservatism laissez-faire economics and the socialist collectivism of state planning which he had first discussed in ‘The Middle Way’ (1938):

• Macmillan shared Burke’s belief that preserving society was of paramount importance and he viewed the debilitating effects of unemployment a terrible threat to stability.
• He rejected empiricism and chose the rationalistic ideas of economist John Maynard Keynes to combat the threat of unemployment. His governments attempted to manage the economy in a way that no conservative administration had previously attempted. However, contemporary conservatives were aware of this philosophical break. Macmillan’s chancellor, Selwyn Lloyd was scared of abandoning traditional conservative empiricism for rationalist state management.
• The Macmillan government also demonstrated that it could abandon tradition; The Life Peerage Act 1958, was a radical break with the past which saw the creation of working ‘life peers’ (including females).
• These ideas were informed by modern liberalism and the enabling state and by traditional conservatism or Disraeli’s empirical ONC.
• Oakeshott disapproved of this style of conservatism, as state management is rationally informed and ignores the limits of human reason.
• Modern ONC has also embraced social liberalism, putting it at odds with traditional conservative values. Conservative governments since 1970 have supported the legislation of both homosexuality and abortion, while Cameron as PM of a Conservative/Liberal Democrat coalition government, passed the Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Act 2013.

Disraeli’s ONC was empirically based, and although he advocated cautious change, he still envisaged limited state interference in society and laissez-faire economics. Macmillan’s version of ONC was rationalistic and saw the state taking a more proactive role in society while advocating the state management of Keynesian economics.

Question 39

Explain the new right

Answer 39

. NEW RIGHT:

By the 1970s, economic state management based on the ideas of John Maynard Keynes was beginning to fail in both the US and the UK. A mixture of high inflation, low economic growth (known as stagflation) and high unemployment plagued Europe and America. For traditional conservative thinkers this was not surprising. Burke had advocated free trade and laissez-faire government as the natural condition for the economy, while Oakeshott was openly sceptical as to whether politicians and economists had the intellectual capacity to successfully state manage a mixed economy.

The New Right (NR) emerged in the 1960-70s in the US but its influence spread around the world. It is most associated with the governments of Reagan in the US and Thatcher in the UK. It is a marriage of NL, (which draws ideological inspiration from CL) and neo-conservatism, (which draws its inspiration from traditional conservatism). Although the ideas are diverse and sometimes contradictory, they share an enthusiasm for free markets and hostility for Keynesian state planning. Neither a NL nor a neo-conservative state has ever existed, but the ideas remain influential for governments all over the world.

Question 40

Explain neo liberalism

Answer 40

NL differs from all other aspects of conservatism in two important respects: 1. It views society as being atomistic (not organic) and 2. It has a positive view of human nature and sees humans as capable of rational thought. NLs are therefore principally concerned with (a) atomistic individualism and (b) free-market economics.

Question 41

Explain atomistic individualism

Answer 41

a) Atomistic individualism: NLs reject the view that the state has the legitimacy to interfere in society via social contract or noblesse oblige. They believe that rather than reinforcing individual freedoms, state interference subverts freedom. Therefore, unlike any other form of conservatism, NL has deep antipathy towards the state and abhors its interference in the life of the individual. Nozick argued for self-ownership, whereby individuals retained their bodies, talents, abilities and labour - and were under minimal obligation from the state. His ideas were influenced by John Locke’s rationalism which focuses on the individual rights of men, as well as Immanuel Kant’s belief that an individual in society cannot be used as a thing or a resource. NLs fear the duties and obligations present in the organic state, perceiving them as a threat to freedom. Nozick and Rand both argue that an individual’s obligations should be to him/herself rather than to state or society.

NLs argue for a miniaturist government, similar to the governments of the (18th, with minimal state interference in the lives of individuals. The primary function of the state, Nozick argued, is to protect human rights, with state involvement ‘limited to the narrow functions of force, theft, enforcement of contracts and so on.’ To preserve individual freedom, the government should ‘roll back’ the state. The organic society, so cherished by other aspects of conservatism is, for Rand, a construct that blunts the development of the individual. More often than not an individual’s thinking is restricted, as it absorbed into the dominant beliefs of society regardless of whether those beliefs are scientifically correct or morally right. Society, as history has demonstrated, is therefore capable of making individuals believe unquestioningly that the world is flat or that the ruthless and discriminatory policies of the Nazi and Communists regimes were justifiable.

Question 42

Explain rands view in relation to atomistic individualism

Answer 42

For Rand, the heroes of history are those who can break such harmful groupthink and retain a capability for original rational thought that challenges the traditions and customs of so-called received wisdom. Only with atomistic individualism, Rand argued, can individuals experience negative freedom, develop their full-potential, comprehend the true nature of the reality and achieve self-realisation. Nozick is less clear than Rand on the extent of atomistic liberalism. He accepts that humans are ‘pack animals’ who enjoy and need social and economic interactions. In his later work, ‘The Examined Life’ (1989), he retreated from the unambiguous libertarianism that he famously championed in his most famous work, ‘Anarchy, State and Utopia’ (1974).

Rand was a pure libertarian and called her theory, ‘objectivism’, a philosophy based on the rationalism of reason and scientific fact:
- The traditions that Burke, Oakeshott and all other aspects of conservative cherish are, for Rand, a nonsense.

• Objectivism argues that truth is found not in the collective beliefs of society or the unproven myth of religion, but in scientific fact.
• Rand argues for a ‘virtue of selfishness’ and praises egoism - it is morally right for individuals to pursue their own dreams and objectives rather than those determined by state and society.
• Religious, socialist, fascist and democratic organic societies all demand that the individual sacrifice their own personal values for some greater good. For Rand, it is wrong for any society to demand that individuals compromise their core values for some collective truth.

Unsurprisingly, she loathed communism and its inherent collectivism more than any other political idea. She also argued that altruism is misrepresented in an organic society, as it should not be a duty dictated by the state but the rational action of an individual pursuing his or her own values. If individuals choose to donate money to charities providing social welfare (voluntarism), this should be as an individual’s choice and not a state obligation.

Question 43

Explain Nozicks view in relation to atomistic individualism

Answer 43

NLs argue that state-sponsored welfare spending restricts atomistic individualism by making individuals dependent on the state. Nozick viewed welfare spending funded by taxation, as an example of the state unfairly encroaching on individual liberty. ‘The illegitimate use of a state by economic interests for their own end is based upon a pre-existing illegitimate power of the state to enrich some persons at the expense of others.’ Abolishing state intervention would allow society to rediscover its atomistic individualist mindset. Rather than asking, ‘What will the government do for me?’ individuals would be forced to ask, ‘What can I do for myself?’ While other aspects of conservatism view the state as a paternal watchman and the organic society as a reassuring communal comfort, neo-liberals view it as inhibiting the individual.

NL views ‘selfishness’ as a virtue - when viewed through the prism of atomistic individualism, self-interest is the most rational and moral course of action that one can take. Free from shackles and obligations of state and society, NLs such as Rand and Nozick argue that human potential will be fully realised and a natural harmony will exist within human intervention.

Question 44

Explain free-market economics in relation neo-liberalism

Answer 44

(b) Free-market economics: By the late 1960s and 70s, with Keynesian state planning beginning to falter, NL offered clear explanations for this failure, arguing that only the free market could properly allocate resources. The state, NLs argued, was ill-equipped to plan or intervene in the economy, and this was as true for state planners in western democracies as it was in communist societies. Nationalised industries, such as those common in the UK at this time, were inefficient, lacked free-market dynamism and were artificially protected from the free-market competition, which in turn distorted the whole market.

According to the economist Milton Friedman, state planning inspired by Keynesian economists was inflationary, and this in turn reduced economic activity. State or government management would always lag behind and underperform the free market. He famously said, ‘If you put the federal government in charge of the Sahara Desert, in five years there’d be a shortage of sand.’ NL therefore sees the role of government as being limited to controlling inflation, via a policy called ‘monetarism’, which emphasises the need for governments to show restraint in their role as monopolists over the supply of money. For Friedman, the state’s tendency to print money (as an easier alternative to raising revenue through taxes) led only to inflation, eroding the value of private citizens’ wages and savings. This NL insistence on monetary restraint heavily influenced the policies of Thatcher in the UK and Reagan in the US during the 1980s.

Question 45

Explain free-market economics in relation to Thatcher

Answer 45

NLs belief in minimal government intervention dictates that individuals should rise and fall on their own abilities. For NL, state intervention is flawed while the natural efficiency of the market is unquestionable. This leads NLs to advocate that public services should be exposed to the competitive forces of the market economy. In the UK, Thatcher viewed nationalised industries as efficient and she privatised gas, electricity, water and telecoms so they could thrive in their natural habitat, the free market. The reduced role of the state caused tension with ONCs, as Thatcher’s NL economic ideology made her indifferent to high unemployment. Thatcher believed that growing unemployment in the UK during the 1970s had been indirectly the result of state intervention – or, for her, unwarranted interference – in the economy, both by overprotecting failing industries and by allowing inflation in prices and wages that made British products uncompetitive internationally.

This was a break with the interventionist consensus that had been maintained by post-war governments, both social democratic-influenced Labour and one-nation Conservative. When in office, Thatcher passed anti-union legislation and famously took on the coal mining industry when she sanctioned the closure of uneconomic state-owned mines. This caused the biggest strike since before the war and a bitter conflict between the police and strikers. For Thatcher, the inefficient nationalised coal mines were a market distortion and after the government won the strike, she privatised the coal industry. In NL terms, she was just restoring market forces and it would have been a nonsense for the state to continue to subsidise an ailing industry.

Thatcher also injected an element of market forces into both the NHS and education, leading to free-market business practices being adopted in state-run public services. This went hand in hand with the introduction of target setting and league tables, in the belief that competition among public services would improve performance. Likewise, NL influences attempted to check the growth of the welfare state. Freidrich von Hayek’s key NL work, ‘The Road to Serfdom’, argues that unchecked welfare spending will bankrupt societies. Third way policies such as making students contribute towards the cost of their university education and raising the age of retirement, were attempts to shrink the size of the state and were NL in origin

Question 46

Explain neo-conservatism

Answer 46

NEO-CONSERVATISM:

While NLs are inspired by CL, neo-conservatives (NCs) are more influenced by traditional conservatism and with: (a) Maintaining organic society from social fragmentation and (b) Upholding public morality and authoritarian law and order. While NL is concerned with reducing the involvement of the state to preserve individual liberty, NCs will increase state involvement and curtail individual freedom if they feel that it is for the good of society.

Question 47

Explain in relation to neo-conservatism the state and society

Answer 47

State and society: a fear of social fragmentation:
NCs, like NLs, celebrate capitalism as the natural economic condition. However, they recognise that the free market in itself does not provide a set of values on which to base a society. Therefore, NCs have been critical of NL ideas which fragment society by failing to defend core conservative values such as religion, tradition and societal responsibility. For NCs, the unease started with the social and sexual revolution of the 1960s, which ushered in an age of moral relativism that has fragmented society ever since. As Irving Kristol (1920-2009, the ‘godfather of NC) argued, the secular rejection of religion in the West depleted the moral and spiritual stock that binds society.

NCs, therefore, value organic society and fundamentally reject the non-liberal vision of atomistic individualism, which has undermined core societal values. Like TCs, they believe religion, tradition, authority and duty are vital facets of the organic society. Agreeing with Burke, they argue that the preservation of society is sacrosanct. For NCs, the welfare reforms of the ‘Great Society’ in the US and the post-war consensus in the UK created a dependency culture. NCs share TCs doubts about the morality of human nature, arguing that anti-poverty programmes failed because they ignored human imperfection, and that humans are not naturally moral or hard-working. Conversely, NCs also dismiss NL ideas of simply dismantling the welfare state as utterly impractical and against the paternalism that is inherent in conservative thought. A NC welfare state argues for a safety net for those who are genuinely struggling, but not handouts that erode individual responsibility. Unlike ONCs who allowed the welfare state to grow, almost uncontrollably, NCs wish to shrink it, simultaneously promoting conservative ideas of family values and hard work.

Thatcher’s ‘right to buy’ council homes was a NC attempt to remodel the welfare state, reduce state dependency and foster a conservative-thinking, property-owning class. Similarly, in both the US and the UK, NCs promote traditional family structures via taxation and mean-tested benefit systems. NCs argue that individuals must take responsibility for poverty and help themselves – the state cannot and should not do everything. A recent example of this thinking was the UK’s Welfare Reform Act 2012 which was designed to ween benefit claimants off state reliance by incentivising them to go back to work. Its architect, the works and pension minister Iain Duncan Smith, saw this policy as a way of fixing ‘broken Britain’ and reintegrating an underclass that had become dislocated from the rest of society

Question 48

Explain in relation to neo-conservatism public morality and authoritarian law and order

Answer 48

Public morality and authoritarian law and order:
Underpinning a desire to reverse social fragmentation is a desire to uphold public morality and law and order. NCs argue that the post-1960s decline led to immorality, leading them to promote anti-permissiveness and more authoritarian policing.

NCs are critical of NLs atomistic individualism, arguing that it has led to the rejection of communal customs and values and so helped transform Western society into a materialistic moral vacuum that ignores the ethical rights and wrongs of Christian society. NCs, especially in the US, are pro-religion, as it counters such moral nihilism. Religion promotes humility and a responsibility for others as well as taming what American conservative politician and theorist William Bennett has described as the ‘basest appetites, passions and impulses of the citizens.’ This counters Rand’s idea that religion blunts rationality and infringes individual liberty. It also counters NLs, who argue that homosexuality, abortion and recreational drug use should be choices for the individual and not determined by the state. For NCs, these are all morally wrong and should be opposed. Both Thatcher and Reagan had a NC inspired ‘war’ on recreational drug use and advocated strict prison sentences as both a moral punishment and an authoritarian deterrent. Therefore, NCs support a tough approach to law and order, and an extension of the state to enforce this policy.

Society must be protected from external forces as well as from internal ones. NC advocates aggressive foreign policy and military intervention to protect the security of the state, e.g. an aggressive anti-Soviet (anti-communist) foreign policy during the Cold War; Bush and Blair’s NC inspired foreign policy saw the US and the UK invade Afghanistan and Iraq to combat terrorism.

Question 49

Explain the new right conflict in cosnervatism

Answer 49

The New Right - An Uneasy Marriage:

Rand and Nozick’s NL ideas contradict many traditional aspects of conservatism. They thought rationalism and logic infinitely superior to empiricism and the wisdom of traditions preferred by Burke and Oakeshott. Rand explicitly stated that she was not a conservative and like Nozick she advocated a minimal state that ignored conservative paternalism. Both perceived society as atomistic and not organic.

So why is NL now taught as an important part of conservative thought? Divisions within both liberal and conservative ideas and party politics perhaps offer the best answers. MLs idea of the enabling state adopted the CL version of the minimal state, provoking a philosophical reaction. Nozick’s ‘Anarchy, State and Utopia’ was challenge to Rawls’ hugely influential ML work, ‘A Theory of Justice’. Some of Nozick’s biggest admirers were NCs in the US and UK, who found in NL ideas that were consistent with Burke’s TC: a small state and laissez-faire economics. Likewise, US NCs particularly appreciated Rand’s contemporary conception of individualism, which echoed the egotistical individualism inherent in the foundation of the American state.

Question 50

Why were neo conservatives worried by modern liberal ideas and socialism in the west?

Answer 50

NCs were already worried that conservative thought was being polluted by ML ideas in the US and socialism in the UK and so they were highly receptive to Rand and Nozick’s ideas. However, NCs could not reconcile themselves to all of NLs ideas concerning human nature, state, society and economy. NLs believe in negative freedom and an atomistic society and so, to Nozick and Rand, the organic society of NC is an infringement of individual liberty and autonomy. They sanction the positive freedom of a limited welfare state for societal stability, a price NLs see no purpose in paying, given their atomistic view of society. While NLs wish to reduce the extent of state interference in society, NCs are willing to expand the state’s authority where this might preserve stability, e.g. authoritarian law and order policies and aggressive foreign policy.

Question 51

Explain the influence of nozick’s neo liberal ideas of individual freedom

Answer 51

Nozick’s NL ideas of individual freedom led him to advocate the legalisation of hard drugs and prostitution, two ideas that contravened long-standing conservative traditions. NCs are sympathetic to the rationalism inherent in free-market economics but are still informed by TC values such as pragmatism. This was demonstrated by NC Republican Bush when he supported Keynesian-style intervention during the economic crisis of 2008, a policy that NLs naturally opposed. There are NL ‘libertarian’ political parties in both the UK and US, but these are fringe institutions with tiny political influence. NL ideas (support for free trade and laissez-faire economics) are advocated by the CP and the RP in the US, which is why NL is associated with conservatism. The NR is a marriage of political convenience between NLs and NCs which focuses on the efficacy of the free market and a loathing of the collectivist ‘big state’ ideas inherent in ML and socialism. In the Cold War years, the New Right was particularly united in its loathing of communism. While being described as ‘conservative’ angered Rand and bemused Nozick, NL ideas inform conservatism as much as they inform liberalism.