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Temple A&P > Lecture: Respiratory System > Flashcards

Lecture: Respiratory System Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 7 functions of the respiratory system?

A

1) gas exchange
2) speech and vocalization
3) olfaction
4) controls pH
5) angiotensin II generation (regulates BP)
6) flow of lymph and venous blood
7) valsalva maneuver (equalizes pressure)

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2
Q

What are the 2 major divisions of the respiratory system?

A

1) conducting zone
- passageway for air
- warms, humidifies, cleanses
- nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchioles
2) respiratory zone
- actual site of gas exchange
- respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli

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3
Q

What are the features and functions of the nose?

A

features:

  • anterior naris
  • nasal cavity

functions:

  • warms, cleanses, humidifies air
  • detects odor
  • amplifies voice
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4
Q

What is the pharynx? What are its 3 divisions?

A

muscular funnel from nasal cavity to larynx nasopharynx
-airborne passages
oropharynx
-palatine and lingual tonsils
laryngopharynx

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5
Q

What are the features and functions of the larynx?

A

features:
epiglottis, cartilage, vestibular folds (includes vocal cords), glottis;

functions:

  • food and drink out of airway
  • sound production (phonation)
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6
Q

Describe the macro-anatomy of the trachea.

A

“windpipe”
C-shaped hyaline cartilage;
trachealis muscle controls airflow

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7
Q

Describe the micro-anatomy of the trachea.

A

inner layer of pseudostratified epithelium
-mucus-secreting goblet cells
-cilitated cells
mucociliary escalator mechanism

connective tissue

  • lymphatic nodules
  • mucus/serous glands
  • tracheal cartilage
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8
Q

Define: mucociliary escalator.

A

mechanism of debris removal in the trachea in which the mucus traps inhaled particles, and the upward beating of the cilia drives the debris-laden mucus toward the pharynx, where it is swallowed

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9
Q

Describe the exterior anatomy of the lungs.

A

costal surface (pressed against rib cage);
mediastinal surface (face medially);
-hilum (slit through which the lung receives the main bronchus, blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves)
-cardiac impression: depression where heart presses against medial surface of left lung

right lung: 3 lobes
left lung: 2 lobes

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10
Q

Describe the anatomy of the bronchial tree.

A

primary bronchi
-similar to trachea
-elastic CT
secondary or tertiary bronchi
-irregular cartilage plates
bronchioles
-no cartilage
-ciliated cuboidal epithelium
-smooth muscle
terminal bronchioles
-no mucus or goblet cells
respiratory bronchioles
-respiratory division
-lead into alveolar ducts

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11
Q

Describe the macroscopic anatomy of the alveoli.

A

alveolar sac: cluster of alveoli;
pulmonary capillaries;
alveolus (singular of alveoli)

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12
Q

Describe the microscopic anatomy of the alveoli.

A

squamous (type I) alveolar: allow for rapid gas diffusion;

great (type II) alveolar: repair type I cells and secrete surfactant, a mixture of phospholipids and protein that decreases surface tension;

alveolar macrophages

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13
Q

What is the respiratory membrane? What are its components?

A

alveolar air-blood barrier
components:
-squamous alveolar cell
-capillary endothelial cell
-basement membrane

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14
Q

What are the features and functions of the pleurae?

A

double layered membrane

  • visceral pleura
  • pareital pleura
  • pleural cavity filled w/ pleural fluid;

functions:

  • reduction of friction
  • creation of pressure gradient
  • compartmentalization of thoracic organs
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15
Q

Explain pulmonary ventilation. What muscles are used?

A

“breathing”
respiratory cycle: inspiration & expiration;
-quiet vs. forced;

respiratory muscles:

  • diaphragm
  • intercostal muscles
  • scalenes
  • others with forced breathing
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16
Q

Describe the neural control for breathing.

A

brainstem respiratory centers located in the medulla and pons;
receptors receive both central and peripheral input

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17
Q

Name and explain the 3 brainstem respiratory centers.

A

1) dorsal respiratory group (DRG)
- inspiratory neurons
- relaxed, quiet inspiration
2) ventral respiratory group (VRG)
- inspiratory and expiratory neurons
- heavy breathing
3) pneumotaxic area
- shortens breath
- increases respiratory rate

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18
Q

Explain the 4 types of central and peripheral input to the respiratory centers.

A

1) central chemoreceptors
- brainstem
- respond to pH changes in cerebrospinal fluid
2) peripheral chemoreceptors
- carotid and aortic bodies of large arteries above heart
- O2, CO2, and pH content of blood
3) stretch receptors
- smooth muscle of bronchi and bronchioles
- Hering-Breuer reflex
4) irritant receptors
- epithelial cells of airway

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19
Q

Define: Hering-Breuer reflex.

A

inhibits inspiration in response to extreme stretching of lungs

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20
Q

For what is voluntary control of breathing important? What is it controlled by? What is it limited by?

A

important for singing, speaking, breath-holding, etc;
controlled by motor cortex of frontal lobe;
high CO2 levels (kids can’t hold breath and die)

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21
Q

What is the formula which describes flow?

A

change in pressure / resistance

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22
Q

Explain the 2 different types of pressure which affect respiration.

A

1) atmospheric pressure
- weight of air above us
- 760 mmHg at sea level
2) intrapulmonary pressure
- internal pressure of lungs

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23
Q

Define: Boyle’s Law.

A

pressure is inversely proportional to volume

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24
Q

Explain the physical process of inspiration.

A

thoracic cavity expands
-diaphragm contracts
lungs expand
-pleura (lung surface) clings to rib cage
-intrapleural pressure is created between parietal and visceral pleurae

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25
Q

Define: pneumothorax.

A

presence of air in the pleural cavity

26
Q

Define: Charles’ Law.

A

volume is directly proportional to temperature

27
Q

Explain the physical process of expiration.

A

passive process
-muscles relax
-achieved by elastic recoil of thoracic cage
“respiratory braking” = muscles relax gradually rather than abruptly; controlled by phrenic nerve

28
Q

How is resistance related to airflow?

A

resistance is inversely proportional to airflow

29
Q

What 2 factors determine resistance to airflow?

A

1) diameter of bronchioles
bronchoconstriction
-stimulated by parasympathetic nerves & histamine bronchodilation
-stimulated by sympathetic nerves
2) pulmonary compliance
-ease of lung expansion
-compliance = change in volume / change in pressure

30
Q

What is a major limitation of pulmonary compliance?

A

surface tension
surfactant disrupts hydrogen bonds, reduces surface tension, and prevents parts of the airway from collapsing during expiration

31
Q

Define: eupnea.

A

relaxed, quiet breathing;

12-15 breaths/min

32
Q

Define: apnea.

A

temporary cessation of breathing

33
Q

Define: dyspnea.

A

labored, gasping breath;

shortness of breath

34
Q

Define: hypernea.

A

increased rate and depth of breathing in response to exercise, pain, or other conditions

35
Q

Define: hyperventilation.

A

increased pulmonary ventilation in excess of metabolic demand

36
Q

Define: hypoventilation.

A

reduced pulmonary ventilation

37
Q

Define: alveolar gas exchange.

A

O2 enters bloodstream, CO2 enters lungs;
exchange occurs across respiratory membrane

38
Q

What are the 3 processes of gas exchange and transport?

A

1) alveolar gas exchange
2) gas transport
3) systemic gas exchange

39
Q

Define: Dalton’s law.

A

total pressure = sum of partial pressures of constituent gases

40
Q

Define: Henry’s law. How does it relate to alveolar gas exchange?

A

at the air-water interface, for a given temp, the amt of gas that dissolves in the water is determined by its solubility in water and its partial pressure in the air;
PO2 of alveolar air higher than PO2 of blood arriving at alveolus;
PCO2 of arriving blood higher than PCO2 of alveolar air;
equilibrium reached in 0.25 seconds

41
Q

What 5 variables affect the efficiency of alveolar gas exchange?

A

1) pressure gradients
2) solubility of gases: CO2 is about 20x more soluble in water
3) membrane thickness
4) membrane area
5) ventilation-perfusion coupling

42
Q

Define: ventilation-perfusion coupling.

A

physiological responses that match airflow to blood flow and visa versa;
occur in pulmonary arteries and bronchioles

43
Q

Define: gas transport.

A

carrying gases from alveoli to tissues;
carrying gases from tissues to alveoli;
gases: O2 and CO2

44
Q

How is oxygen transport accomplished?

A

accomplished by hemoglobin of RBC
-carries 4 molecules of O2

45
Q

Define: oxyhemoglobin.

A

hemoglobin with ≥ 1 O2 molecule bound to it

46
Q

Define: deoxyhemoglobin.

A

hemoglobin with no O2 molecules bound to it

47
Q

Explain the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve.

A

relationship between hemoglobin saturation and PO2

48
Q

In what 3 forms is carbon dioxide transported?

A

1) bicarbonate ion in plasma
CO2+ H2O < - > H2CO3< - > H++ HCO3-
-catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase
2) chemically bound to Hb
-carbaminohemoglobin (HbCO2)
Hb + CO2 → HbCO2
3) Dissolved in blood plasma

49
Q

Define: carbaminohemoglobin.

A 
HbCO<sub>2</sub>
carbamino compound (CO<sub>2</sub>bound to amino groups of plasma proteins and hemoglobin)
50
Q

What are the 2 processes of systemic gas exchange?

A

loading & unloading

51
Q

Explain the the loading process of systemic gas exchange.

A

diffusion of CO2 from tissues into blood stream b/c of concentration gradient;
-CO2 produces HCO3- in RBC (catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase);
HCO3- pumped out of cell in exchange for Cl- (called chloride shift)

52
Q

Define: chloride shift.

A

exchange of HCO3- out of RBC into blood plasma and Cl- into cell from blood plasma

53
Q

Explain the the unloading process of systemic gas exchange.

A

diffusion of O2 from bloodstream into tissue b/c of concentration gradient;
utilization coeffecient;
venous reserve

54
Q

Define: utilization coeffecient.

A

proportion of O2 in the blood which diffuses into tissues as it passes through the capillaries

55
Q

Define: venous reserve.

A

O2 remaining in blood after it passes through the capillary bed;
4-5 minutes of oxygen reserve

56
Q

How is the amount of O2 unloaded by hemoglobin to tissues adjusted? What 4 factors determine the rate of O2 unloading?

A

hemoglobin adjusts unloading based on needs of tissue;

1) ambient PO2:at low PO2, hemoglobin releases more oxygen
2) temperature: high temp promotes O2 unloading
3) Bohr effect: decrease in pH promotes unloading
4) Biphosphoglycerate (BPG): by-product of RBC metabolism that promotes unloading

57
Q

Define: Haldane effect.

A

rate of CO2 loading adjusted according to needs of tissue;
low levels of oxyhemoglobin increase CO2 transport

58
Q

What 3 physical characteristics of arterial blood is breathing adjusted to maintain normel levels of?

A

pH = 7.40
PCO2 = 40 mmHg
PO2 = 95 mmHg
(listed in order of importance)

59
Q

Ultimately, pulmonary ventilation is adjusted to maintain what?

A

brain pH;
High [H+] in CSF stimulates central chemoreceptors

60
Q

Define: acidosis. What is the most common cause? What is the corrective homeostatic response?

A

blood pH < 7.35;
most common cause = hypercapnia (PCO2 > 43 mmHg);
hyperventilation occurs to “blow off” CO2 faster than the body produces it

61
Q

What is the direct effect of CO2 on respiration? Indirect effect?

A

increased PCO2 stimulates peripheral chemoreceptors;
-stimulate increase in ventilation;

indirectly related to pH levels

62
Q

What is the effect of oxygen on respiration?

A

little effect (normally);
hemoglobin saturation fairly constant;
< 60 mmHg arterial PO2:
-peripheral chemoreceptors stimulated, causing an increase in ventilation and O2 loading

Temple A&P (15 decks)

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