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BIOL 126 Physiological basis of life > Lecture midterm #2 > Flashcards

Lecture midterm #2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the process called when plants grow toward the light?

A

Phototropism

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2
Q

What are the two major classes of light receptors and what do they do?

A

1) Blue-light photo receptors: Control Hypocotyl (stem) elongation, stomatal opening, and phototropism.

2) Phytochromes: regulate seed germination and shade avoidance.

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3
Q

What are the 2 photoreversible states that Phytochromes live in?

A

Pr

Pfr

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4
Q

How to Phytochromes trigger germination?

A

Red light (sunlight) triggers conversion of Pr to Pfr (happens throughout daytime and stimulates germination)

Far-red light triggers conversion of Pfr to Pr (happens overnight and INHIBITS germination response)

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5
Q

What type of light do leaves in the shade absorb?

A

They absorb more FAR-RED light than red light.

which shifts the phytochrome ratio to (Pr> Pfr)

**this shifts the growth patter to growing taller INSTEAD of branching out (allows it to find more light)

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6
Q

How to phytochromes detect sunlight?

A

at sunlight Pfr levels start to increase

*way plants can detect day time (morning)

at night there is a shift from Pfr to Pr. then morning hits and they reverse back

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7
Q

What are photoperiods?

A

Length of Dark/ Light cycle

*primary environmental stimuli plants used to detect the time of year

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8
Q

What is photoperiodism?

A

The response plants have to seasonal changes (day length) within the day to adapt to the seasonal changes in their environment

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9
Q

What are short day plants?

A

Flowers with a set minimum number of hours of darkness

short day (Long night)

*require long periods of darkness

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10
Q

What are long day plants?

A

Flowers with a set minimum number of hours of light.

*require long periods of light

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11
Q

What are day-neutral plants?

A

Controlled by plant maturity (not photoperiod)

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12
Q

What is a plants response to gravity called?

A

Gravitropism

Roots show (+) gravitropism (they grow DOWN)

Shoots show (-) gravitropism (they grow UP)

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13
Q

What is a plants response to touch called?

A

Thigmotropism

Occurs in vines and other climbing plants

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14
Q

What is the morphological adaptation some plants have to grow in the dark called?

A

Etiolation

Pale shoots with no leaves and a few short roots

If exposed to light it will go through DE ETIOLATION and will grow normally

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15
Q

What are the 3 stages of Signal Transduction Pathways?

A

1) Reception: detected by receptors (proteins)

2) Transduction: Transfer and amplify signals from receptors to responders

3) Response: Change in regulation of cell activities (usually increased by enzyme activity)

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16
Q

Potatoes response to being introduced to light?

A

De etiolation

Reception: Phytochrome stimulated by light

Transduction: Phytochrome opens Ca2+ channels and activated enzyme that makes cGMP.

Response: protein (kinases) (enzyme) is activated, transcription factors up-regulate gene transcription involved in photosynthesis

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17
Q

What are the 5 growth promoters of plant hormones?

A

1) Auxin

2) Gibberellins

3) Cytokinins

4) Strigolactones

5) Brassinosteroids (dont need to know this one)

Ass Good Cake Sticky Balls

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18
Q

What are the 3 growth inhibitors of plant hormones?

A

1) Ethylene

2) Abscisic acid (ABA)

3) Jasmonates

Every Ass Jiggles

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19
Q

Tell me about Auxin?

A
  • Plant growth promoter hormone
  • chemical involved in stem and cell elongation
  • Produced mostly in shoot tips (apical meristem) and leads to Phototropism
  • Auxin moves to the shaded part of the stem which causes elongation of that side and movement toward the light
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20
Q

What are expansins?

A
  • Enzymes that loosen the fabric of the cell wall (with cellulose loosened the plant can elongate)
  • Auxin stimulates proton pumps (H+) in plasma membrane
  • Proton pumps lower pH in cell wall and activated expansins
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21
Q

How does Auxin work in branch growth?

A

Reduced Auxin in one branch promotes growth in another. (spacial organization)

growth of new branches is due to high auxin concentration in that area

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22
Q

What is phyllotaxy?

A

Arrangement of leaves on stems

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23
Q

What is Auxin IBA?

A

Auxin Indolebutyric Acid

Stimulates “Adventitious roots” = arise from an area on the plant that is not the roots

*used for gardening and farming

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24
Q

What does Gibberellins (GA) do?

A

Hormone that promotes plant elongation in the internodes, fruit growth and see germination.

Produced in young roots and leaves and causes “bolting”= rapid growth of a plant

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25
Q

What are Jasmonates and what do they do?

A

Plant hormone that aids in defense.

(eg) Caterpillar bites leaf, the chemicals in the caterpillars saliva stimulates the signal transduction pathway, synthesis and the release of volatile attractants (sends a signal that recruits parasitoid wasps to come and lay their eggs in the caterpillar)

fucking savage

Also tissue healing and fruit ripening

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26
Q

How does fruit ripen?

A

Burst of ethylene production in fruits triggers ripening.

ethylene triggers ripening, ripening triggers more release of eythene (positive feedback)

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27
Q

How does ethylene respond to mechanical stress?

A

Triple response:

SLOWING of stem elongation

THICKENING of stem

HORIZONTAL growth

*allows growing shoot to push through/ around obstacles

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28
Q

What is Ethylene?

A

A plant hormone produced in response to stressed.

1) Mechanical strengthening

2) Fruit ripening

3) Leaf abscission (dropping)

4) Aging/ senescence (death)

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29
Q

What is apoptosis?

A

Programmed cell death

A burst of ethylene is associated with apopsis

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30
Q

What are the 2 main effects of Abscisic acid (ABA)?

A

1) Seed dormancy: ensures that sees will only germinate in optimal conditions

2) Drought tolerance: enables plants to withstand a drought

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31
Q

What are brassinosteroids?
(dont need to know this one for the lecture exam)

A

Plant hormone that induce cell elongation AND cell division in stems

Also slow down leaf abscission (dropping)

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32
Q

What are strigolactones?

A

Plant hormone that aids in Auxins inhibition of bud growth, stimulates seed germination, and helps establish “Micorrhizal associations”..

COME BACK TO THIS ONE

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33
Q

What are Cytokinins?

A

Plant hormone that stimulate cytokinesis (cell division).

Produced in roots shoots and fruits

Works with Auxin to control cell division and differentiation (roots vs shoots)

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34
Q

What is Apical Dominance?
(dont need to know this one for the lecture exam)

A

Come back to this one

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35
Q

What are the anti-aging effects of cytokinins?

A
  • Inhibit protein breakdown
  • Stimulate RNA and protein synthesis
  • Mobilizing nutrients from surrounding tissues

**florists use cytokinins on flowers to keep them fresh

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36
Q

How do Gibberellins promote seed germination?

A
  • After water is absorbed Gibberellins are released from the embryo and that signals the seed to germinate.
  • GA signals to outer layer of endosperm
  • Amylaze hydrolyze starch
  • Cotyledon uses sugars for growth
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37
Q

What are the 2 major types of proteins in a plasma membrane?

A

1) Peripheral proteins: sit on one side of the membrane.(few hydrophobic amino acids) AID IN SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION

2) Integral proteins: sit within the membrane. (hydrophobic/phylic amino acids) HELP HYDROPHYLIC PARTICLES TRAVEL THROUGH THE MEMBRANE

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38
Q

What are the functions of integral proteins in the phospholipid bilayer?

A

1) Transport: of materials across the hydrophobic core (channels, carriers, pumps)

2) Enzymatic activity: ATP synthase

3) Signal transduction: Phytochome

4) Cell to cell recognition: (immune cells)

5) Joining cells together: (tight junctions)

6) Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (collagen)

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39
Q

What dos fluid refer to in the plasma membrane?

A

“lateral movement” on the membrane (10 to the 7 times per second)

“flip-flop” phospholipids might transversely flip across the membrane (rare)

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40
Q

What changes the mobility of the plasma membrane?

A

-Cool temperatures turn the fluid state to a solid (gel state)

  • Membranes rich in saturated fatty acids are stiff. membranes with unsaturated fatty acids are more fluid because of the kinks (dbl C bonds)

-Cholesterol (if its cool it keeps it from getting too rigid, if too warm it keeps it stabilized so it doesn’t become too fluid)

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41
Q

What is diffusion and passive transport?

A
  • the movement of particles DOWN their concentration gradient until equilibrium
  • Passive transport is transport that DOES NOT require ATP
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42
Q

The plasma membrane exhibits “selective permeability”. What can pass through easily and what needs help?

A

Easily: Hydrophobic NONpolar substances (fatty acids, steroids, gasses like O2 and CO2)

Needs help: Hydrophilic POLAR substances (ions, sugars, amino acids,

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43
Q

Water diffuses from regions of __________ to ___________.

A

Low solute concentration (high water concentration)

to High solute concentration (low water concentration)

**passively

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44
Q

What is tonicity?

A

The ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to lose of gain water.

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45
Q

What are isotonic solutions?

A

Have the same solute concentration of that of the inside of the cell

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46
Q

What is a hypertonic solution?

A

Have a higher solute concentration than the inside of the cell.

*cell loses water

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47
Q

What is a hypotonic solution?

A

Have a lower solute concentration than that of the inside of the cell.

*cell gains water

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48
Q

What is osmoregulation?

A

The control of water balance

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49
Q

How do hyrdrophilic particles move through the plasma membrane?

A

Facilitated diffusion (No ATP) passive

Carrier proteins (provide corridor)

Protein channels (change shape to translocate particles)

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50
Q

WHY is active transport a thing?

A

Because cells sometimes need particles to go UP their concentration gradient.

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51
Q

What is a membrane potential?

A

Voltage differences across membrane

**acts a stored energy to that can be used for cellular work

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52
Q

What is an electrogenic pump?

A

Proteins that generate voltage differences

(eg) Proton pump for plants, fungi and bacteria.

(eg) Na+/ K+ pump for animals

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53
Q

What is cotransport?

A

Active transport (REQUIRES ATP)

A carrier protein that allows the transport of two different things (solute and an ion) from one side of the membrane to the other at the same time

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54
Q

What is bulk transport?

A

Active transport (REQUIRES ATP)

The movement of larger molecules or solutions in or out of a cell

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55
Q

What is exocytosis?

A

Active transport (REQUIRES ATP)

Transport vesicles containing cargo migrate over to the membrane, fuse, and release contents.

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56
Q

What is endocytosis?

A

Active transport (REQUIRES ATP)

Cells take IN particles by forming vesicles derived from the plasma membrane

57
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

Active transport (REQUIRES ATP)
Endocytosis of large particles

(means Cell eating)

Cells engulf particles in a phagocytic vacuole.

Used by protists and a means of getting food

58
Q

What is pinocytosis?

A

Active transport (REQUIRES ATP)
Endocytosis for small particles

(means Cell drinking)

Cells constantly undergo small invaginations (folds inwards)

Take in fluid containing solutes and pinch off to form a vesicle around it

59
Q

What are ligands?
Receptor mediated endocytosis

A

Active transport (REQUIRES ATP)

A molecule that irreversibly binds to a receiving membrane surface protein (receptors).

Receptor-ligand interaction triggers vesicle formation and internalization.

60
Q

How do cells most often communicate with eachother?

A

Chemical signals at their exteriors (cell walls, ECM, junctions)

61
Q

How do plant cells communicate to one another?

A

Plasmodesmata

Channels between adjacent plant cells that allow for chemicals to pass

**Plants need this because cell walls are thick (multilayered cellulose/ protein walls)

62
Q

How do animal cells communicate with one another?

A

Extracellular matrix ECM

Protein fibers and proteoglycan complexes of the ECM

Intercellular juncions (Tight, gap, desmosomes)

63
Q

What are the 3 types of intercellular junctions?

A

1) Tight junctions

2) Desmosomes

3) GAP junctions

64
Q

What are tight junctions?

A

Animal cells use them to prevent leaks

Neighbouring cell membranes are pressed together (like a quilt stitched together)

FUNCTION: Prevents fluids from leaking between cells

65
Q

What are desmosomes?

A

Animal cells use these to anchor to one another

Fasten cells together (like a spot weld)

FUNCTION: Join cells together in strong sheets

66
Q

What are GAP junctions?

A

Animal cells use them to communicate

FUNCTION: Provide cytoplasic communication via connexons (little clips with a pore in them)

67
Q

What are integrins?

A

Membrane proteins (surface molecules) that have direct contact with one another

Cell to cell recognition

Chemical messengers that travel short distances.

*Local signalling

68
Q

How do cells undergo Local signalling?

A

Integrins

Membrane proteins that have direct contact with one another (cell to cell recognition)

Chemical messengers that travel short distances.

69
Q

How do cells undergo long distance signalling?

A

Hormones

“Endocrine signalling”

**in order for a cell to respond it needs a specific receptor

70
Q

What are the 3 main types of membrane receptors?

A

1) G protein-coupled receptors

2) Receptor tyrosine kinases

3) Ion channel receptors

71
Q

What are G protein-coupled receptors?

A

1 of the 3 main types of membrane receptors

  • Bing with GTP (like ATP) acts like an on/off switch
  • if receptor is inactive then GDP is bound to the G protein

** if receptor is active (ligand binds), receptor binds to G protein and GTP replaces GDP (now G protien is active)

***active G protein binds to nearby enzyme -> cellular responses

72
Q

What are Receptor Tyrosine kinases (RTKs)?

A

1 of the 3 types of membrane receptors

  • Receptors that attach phosphates to tyrosines
  • Can trigger multiple signal transduction pathways at once
73
Q

What are ion channel receptors?

A

1 of the 3 types of membrane receptors

  • Ligand-gated channel receptor.
  • Acts as a gate and the receptor changes shape.
  • once the ligand binds to the receptor the gate allows specific ions to travel through (Na+, Ca2+) and this causes a cellular response
74
Q

What happens during “reception”?

A

The target cell detects a signalling molecule that binds to the receptor and cell surface.

75
Q

What happens during “transduction”?

A

Reception of the signal causes the receptor to initiate a signal transduction pathway.

76
Q

What happens during a “response”?

A

The transduced signal triggers a specific response in a target cell (series of steps)

77
Q

What 3 steps happen when a cells receptor gets a signal?

A

1) Reception

2) Transduction

3) Response

78
Q

What do Protein kinases (PK) do?

A

They trandfer phosphate groups from ATP to protein (phosphorylation)

79
Q

What do Protein photophases (PP) do?

A

They remove the phosphates from proteins (dephosphorylation)

80
Q

What is a “second messenger”?
What are the 2 important second messengers?

A

A signal might be relayed through a second messenger.

  • Small non-protein water soluble molecules or ions

**Cyclic AMP (cAMP)
***Calcium (Ca2+) ions

81
Q

What does cAMP do?

A

2nd messenger

-Extracellular signals (1st messenger) trigger the formation of cAMP from ATP

  • Activates phosphorylation cascade ending in an activation of a protein

(cAMP is synthesized from ADENYLYL CYLASE)

(cAMP can be brooken down by PHOSPHODIESTERASE)

82
Q

What is adenylyl cylase?

A

Enzyme that synthesizes cAMP (a 2nd messenger)

83
Q

What is phosphodiesterase?

A

Enzyme that breaks down cAMP (a 2nd messenger)

84
Q

What does an overproduction of cAMP lead to?

A

Over-secretion of salt

*water enters colon via osmosis (leads to diarrhea and possibly death

(Cholera over-produces cAMP)

85
Q

What is apoptosis?

A

Programmed cell death

(eg) normal part of finger development

Components of the cell are chopped up and packaged in vesicles that get digested from scavenger cells.

**prevents enzymes from leaking out of a dying cell and damaging neighbouring cells

this is cool

86
Q

Cell theory

A

Every cell came from a cell

87
Q

What is cell division?

A

A cell splitting into 2.

*before dividing a cell must duplicate is DNA

why did I even make a fucking card for this

88
Q

What is a cell cycle?

A

Charts the progress of a cells lifespan from its formation to its division

89
Q

How to prokaryotes reproduce?

A

Binary fission

Asexual reproduction

Circular chromosome replicates and the two daughter chromosomes actively move apart.

plasma membrane pinches inwards, dividing the new cells.

New daughter cells are identical

90
Q

In Eukaryotes how is DNP packaged?

A

Chromosomes: Long dense LINEAR strands

91
Q

What is a duplicated chromosome?

A

2 sister chromatids (joined copies of the original chromosome)

Held together by a centromere

92
Q

What are they called when sister chromatids get separated into new nuclei?

A

Daughter chromosomes

93
Q

What are the 2 phases of a cell cycle?

A

1) Interphase: cells grow, chromosomes duplicate (majority of their life)

2) Mitotic (M) phase: cellular division (mitosis and cytokinesis)

94
Q

What are the 3 sub phases of interphase?

A

1) G1 phase: (1st gap)

2) S phase: (DNA synthesis)

3) G2 phase: (2nd gap)

95
Q

What does interphase look like?

A

Nucleolus is often visible

DNA condensed in chromatin (foggy)

Cell has 2 centrosomes

96
Q

What are the 5 sub-phases of mitosis?

A

1) Prophase
2) Prometaphase
3) Metaphase
4) Anaphase
5) Telophase

97
Q

What does early prophase look like?

A

Nucleolus is no longer visible

Centrosomes move to opposite poles (begin forming mitotic spindle)

Chromosomes condense and become clear strands

98
Q

Whats the mitotic spindle, whats it made of, whats it do?????

A

Controls chromosome movement during mitosis

made of microtubules

(collectively includes centrosomes, spindle microtubules, and asters)

99
Q

What are kinetochores?

A

Proteins that connect centromeres (of chromosomes) to microtubules

100
Q

What does late prophase look like?

A

Nuclear envelope degenerates

Centrosomes extend microtubules and attach the kinetichore to the centromeres of the chromosomes

101
Q

What does metaphase look like?

A

No nucleus visible

centrosome microtubules form spindle apparatus which is connected to the opposite centrosomes and kinetohores.

Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate

102
Q

What does anaphase look like?

A

Sister chromosomes are being pulled apart to their poles. (now called daughter chromosomes)

Centrosomes shorten their kinetochore microtubules (via motor proteins)

Lengthen their non-kinetochore microtubules (to push away from the other pole)

103
Q

During anaphase what pulls the kinetochores closer to their centrosome?

A

Motor proteins

Microtubules shorten by depolymerizing at their kinetochore end

**this is what pulls the sister chromatids apart

104
Q

Tell me about the non-kinetochores?

A

From opposite poles they overlap

During anaphase they push apart from eachother

Cause cell to further elongate and separate the daughter chromosomes

105
Q

What does telophase look like?

A

2 daughter nuclei begin to from.

nucleoli reappear

1 centrosome present in each new cell

Chromosomes decondense in new nuclei

106
Q

In animal cells after telophase how do the cells fully separate?

A

Cytokinesis

The formation of a “Cleavage furrow”

Ring of actin microfiliments contract, pinching the cell

107
Q

In plants cells after telophase how do the cells fully separate?

A

Cytokinesis

The formation of a “Cell plate”

Vesicles contain cell wall materials assemble at the metaphase plate

108
Q

What are cytoplasmic signals?

A

A cell in S phase was fused to a cell in G1 phase and triggered the G1 cell to enter S phase and synthesize DNA

A cell in M phase was fused to a cell in G1 phase and it triggered the G1 cell to undergo mitosis even though is hadn’t duplicated its chromosomes yet.

109
Q

What are the 3 most important checkpoints?

A

G1, G2 and M

110
Q

What does G1 checkpoint do?

A

If go-ahead signal is recieved the cell will complete S, G2 and M phase.

If go-ahead signal is not recieved the cell will leave the cell cycle and go to G0 (nondividing phase)

111
Q

What are the 2 regulatory proteins in the checkpoints?

A

Cyclins

Cyclins-dependent kinases (Cdk)

*their activity fluculates: MPF (maturation promoting factor)

112
Q

What does G2 checkpoint do?

A

Cyclins accumulate at end of S phase, eventually binding with Cdk to from MPF which triggeres the cells passage through G2 phase to the M phase

SIMPLE: go from G2 to M phase

113
Q

What happens to Cdk when mitosis is done?

A

Gets recycled and is ready to bind cyclin in the next S phase

114
Q

What are the 3 external checkpoint signals?

A

1) Growth factors: (proteins from other cells)

2) Anchorage dependence: (most animal cells must be attached at a surface)

3) Density-dependent inhibition: (most crowded cells stop dividing)

115
Q

Tell me about abnormal cells?

A

They ignore all chechpoints and external checkpoint signals.

They form TUMOURS

116
Q

What are benign tumours?

A

Abnormal cells that remain at the original site.

usually slow growing

117
Q

What are malignant tumours?

A

Cancer

invade surrounding tissues in the process known as “metastasis”

First spread to adjacent regions

Spread through lymphatic system and blood

118
Q

What is chemotherapy?

A

Injection of chemicals that target rapidly dividing cells

119
Q

What is radiation therapy?

A

Radiated the tumour with DNA damaging high energy waves

120
Q

What is immunotherapy?

A

Boosts the patients immune system to help fight cancers

121
Q

What is asexual reproduction? pros and cons

A

1 parents produced genetically identical clones.

Pros: Fast, produces many, no need to find mate.

Cons: no genetic variations, population can easily be wiped out, harder to adapt/ evolve.

122
Q

What are some examples of asexual reproduction?

A

Mitosis
Fragmentation
Budding
Binary fission
Parthenogenesis
Spore formation

123
Q

Tell me about sexual reproduction?

A

2 parents produce genetically unique offsprings

Both parents produce HAPLOID gametes

Gametes fuse during fertilization and form a ZYGOTE.

Zygote = DIPLOID (2n)

124
Q

How many chromosomes do Haploid gametes have?

A

1 set of chromosomes (n=23)

125
Q

How many chromosomes do Zygotes and somatic cells have?

not making a card for them but somatic cells = non-reproductive cells

A

Both sets of parental chromosomes and are diploid (2n=46)

126
Q

What are karyotypes?

A

Ordered displays of an organisms chromosome pairs.

22 of the chromosome pairs are called AUTOSOMAL HOMOLOGOUS PAIRS (same genes (segments of DNA) and LOCUS (location)

1 set are SEX CHROMOSOMES (XX or XY)

127
Q

What type of sex chromosome comes from an egg?

A

XX

Thus eggs only donate X to offsprings

128
Q

What type of sex chromosome comes from sperm?

A

XY

Thus sperm can donate either X or Y to their offsprings

129
Q

Meiosis (simple simple breakdown) what comes out?

A

2 rounds of meiosis
4 daughter cells
Daughter cells are HAPLOID
Daughter cells are UNIQUE

130
Q

What occurs in interphase of Meiosis?

A

Homologous pair of chromosomes in diploid parent cell —>

—>homologous pair of replicated chromosomes (sister chromatids)

131
Q

What happens in meiosis 1?

A

Diploid cells become haploid

Daughter cells are unique

Sister chromatids still connected

Crossing over

132
Q

What happens in meiosis 2?

A

Haploid cells sister chromtids randomly separate

4 unique haploid daughter cells are fromed

133
Q

What is a tetrad and where does it happen?

A

group of 4 chromatids

Prophase 1

134
Q

What is a chiasmata and where does it occur?

A

Each tetrad has them. Its where they recombine (x shape region) (crossing over)

Prophase 1

135
Q

What happens in metaphase 1 of meiosis?

A

Tetrads line up at metaphase plate

Microtubules and kinetochores attach to1 sister chromatid pair of each tetrad

136
Q

What happens in telophase 1 of meisois?

A

New nuclei form around each haploid set of chromosomes

Each chromosmes still consist of 2 sister chromatids

Cytokinesis occurs simultaneously forming 2 haploid DAUGHTER CELLS

137
Q

What is the next phase after telpohase 1 of meisois?

A

INTERKINESIS (centrosomes duplicate but not DNA)

**remember there is no interphase in meiosis 2.

138
Q

What happens in prophase II of meiosis?

A

Spindle apparatus form between the 2 centrosomes

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139
Q

When does independent assortment happen?

A

Anaphase I of meiosis

BIOL 126 Physiological basis of life (5 decks)

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