Lecture midterm #1 Flashcards
1
Q
What are the 7 characteristics of life?
A
1) Response to the environment
2) Regulation (Homeostasis)
3) Energy processing
4) Growth and development
5) Reproduction
6) Evolutionary adaptation
7) Cellular
2
Q
What are the 9 levels of organisation?
A
1) Atoms
2) Molecules
3) Macromolecules
4) Organelles
5) Cells
6) Tissues
7) Organs
8) Organ systems
9) Organisms
3
Q
What are valence electrons?
A
the number of electrons in the last shell that arent paired up
4
Q
What is it called when atoms SHARE electrons?
A
Covalent bond
5
Q
Difference between POLAR and NON POLAR?
A
POLAR=unequal sharing (water)
NON POLAR=equal sharing
6
Q
Whats so important about carbon?
A
All organic molecules contain carbon and hydrogen.
Organic molecules make up living things.
Carbon has 4 valence electrons makes for good hydrocarbon chains and rings
7
Q
What is a functional group?
A
The components of organic molecules that are involved in chemical reactions (usually at the ends of the molecule)
8
Q
What are 5 important functional groups Brooke wants us to know?
A
1) Carboxyl group (-) (O C O)
2) Phosphate group (-) (O O P O O)
3) Amino group (+) (NH3)
4) Methyl group (H H C H)
5) Hydroxyl group (neutral but polar) (OH)
9
Q
What is an isomer?
A
Compounds with the same molecular formula but have different shapes and functions
10
Q
What are structural isomers?
A
Different bonding patterns
11
Q
What are CIS and TRANS isomers?
A
Cis = same bonding patterns but different spacial arrangements (two X’s on the same side)
Trans = same bonding patterns but opposite sides (two X’s are on opposite sides from one another)
12
Q
What are enantiomers?
A
Optical isomers with the same molecular structure but are mirror images to one another
Like our hands.
Usually referred to and L and D isomers
13
Q
What are polymers?
A
Made of macromolecules. many monomers
O O O O O = monomers
O-O-O-O-O-O-O = polymer
14
Q
What is the dehydration reaction?
A
BUILDING polymers
OH and H are removed from the ends of polymers and monomers and it forcing them together. Leaving H2O as a product along with the new longer polymer.
*think. youre dehydrating it by taking water out
15
Q
What is hydrolysis?
A
BREAKS polymers
Water (H2O) is used to break a polymer (the covalent bonds between subunits) into 2 shorter polymers. Each polymer now with a different end, OH for one and H for the other.
*hydro=water. Lysis=break
16
Q
What are the 4 major macromolecules?
A
1) Carbohydrates
2) Lipids (only one that is not a polymer)
3) Proteins
4) Nucleic acids
17
Q
Tell me some shit about carbohydrates?
A
-Monomers are Monosaccharides (simple sugars)
-2 are Disaccharides
-Fuel source/ structural
Simple sugars are made of Carbon rings with hydrophilic functional groups
18
Q
Plants vs animals structure & energy
A
Plant energy = Starch (polusaccharide)
Plant structure = Cellulose (polysaccharide)
Animal energy = glycogen (polysaccharide)
Animal structure = chitin (polysaccharide)
19
Q
What is glycosidic linkage?
A
When 2 monosaccharides are bonded together and form a Disaccharide
Dehydration reaction JOINS monosaccharides to form disaccharides
20
Q
Tell me about lipids are the 3 major types?
A
Hydrophobic ( non polar)
Only major molecule thats not a Polymer
1) Triglycerides
2) Phospholipids
3) Steroids
21
Q
What are triglycerides made of and whats their function?
A
- Fats and Oils
-Glycerol and 3 fatty acid chains
- Function= energy storage, insulation, cushioning
22
Q
Tell me about saturated fats?
A
Carbons in fatty acid chains
solid a room temp
most animal fat
no double bonds
every carbon has the max amount of Hs
23
Q
Tell me about unsaturated fats?
A
Double bond in the carbon
liquid at room temp
Missing a hydrogen
24
Q
What is Hydrogeneration?
A
The process of converting unsaturated fats into saturated fats by added the missing hydrogen to improve preservation
Can be used to make cis-unsaturated fats into trans unsaturated fats (bad)
25
What is a phospholipid?
Amphipathic (both polar and nonpolar)
2 fatty acids and a glycerol molecule attached to a phosphate group
Phosphate head = polar
fatty acid tail = nonpolar
26
What are steroids?
Lipids with a carbon skeleton consisting of 4 rings
Cholesterol: Found in plasma membrane. makes stuff fluid.
Estradiol: lipid hormone
Testosterone: lipid hormone
27
List 8 different things proteins do?
1) Enzymes (amylase)
2) Defensive (antibodies)
3) Storage (albumin)
4) Transport (hemoglobin)
5) Hormones (insulin)
6) Receptors (ACE-2)
7) Contractile (muscle fibers)
8) Structural (collagen)
Every dick smells terrible. happily ride cock still
28
Tell me some more shit about amino acids (proteins)?
They have carboxyl functional groups and amino groups
They also have R-groups (side chain) (determine reactivity)
linked by peptide bonds
29
Tell me about the Primary stucture and secondary structure of amino acids?
Primary = polypeptide chain
Secondary = Alpha helix and beta pleated sheets (due to R-group interactions)
30
Tell me about the tertiary and quaternary structures of amino acids?
Tertiary = 3D structure (R-groups form hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide bridges)
Quaternary = Protein consists of multiple polypeptide chains
31
What do nucleic acids do?
Store, transmit and express hereditary information.
nucleic acid monomers = nucleotides
32
What is a nucleotide made of?
5-carbon sugar (pentose)
phosphate group
nitrogenous base
33
What are the 5 possible bases of nucleotides?
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
Uracil (U)
34
DNA is a ladder. What are the sides and rungs?
Sugar and phosphate sides
Nitrogenous bases for rungs
35
All cells share what in common?
DNA (genetic info)
Ribosomes (make protein)
Plasma membrane (phospholipid bilayer)
Cytoplasm (semi-fluid gel)
36
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic, what are the domains?
Prokaryotic= domain bacteria. domain archaea
Eukaryotic = domain eukarya (plants, animals, fungi, protists)
37
What are some structures prokaryotes have?
pili
flagellum
nucleoid space
cell wall
capsule
38
What is plasmodesmata?
Connections between plant cell walls that allow for communication
39
cilia and flagella?
Cilia = short protein fibers that contract for coordinated movement
Flagella= long tail for propulsion
40
What is the cytoskeleton made of?
Microfilaments
Microtubules
Intermediate filaments
Anchors cellular organelles and maintains shape of cell
41
Tell me about chloroplasts?
Found in algae and plant cells.
contain flattened membranous sacs called THYLAKOIDS which get stacked into GRANUM
inner fluid is called STROMA which contains pigments and enzymes
Function = PHOTOSYNTHESIS
42
Tell me about the mitochonria?
Site of ATP synthesis (cellular respiration)
Doubled membrane system with folded inner membrade called CRISTAE
CRISTAE is divided into the inner membrane space and mitochondrail matrix
43
What are lysosomes?
contain digestive enzymes
breakdown macromolecules
44
Vesicles vs vacuoles?
Both bud from the ER, Golgi or plasma membrane
Vesicle = are small (transport)
Vacuoles = are big (storage)
45
Whats the Golgi apparatus?
folded membranous sacs called CISTERNAE
Modifies products of the rER and sER
Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles
46
What do ribosomes do?
Tiny particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein from the cytoplasm or attached to the rough ER
Make proteins (assemble polypeptide chains from mRNA transcripts
47
What does the rough ER do?
Secretes glycoproteins (proteins covalently bonded to carbohydrates)
Distribute transport vesicles containing proteins
48
What does the smooth ER do?
Makes lipids
metabolizes carbohydrates
detoxifying poisons
stores calcium ions
49
What is metabolism?
The total amount of chemical reactions
50
What are the 4 kinds of energy and what do they do?
Kinetic = motion
Thermal = (heat) random movement of atoms or molecules
Potential = stored energy
Chemical = stored within chemical bonds
51
Anabolic vs Catabolic pathways?
Anabolic = Store energy (build molecules)
Catabolic = Release energy (Break molecules)
52
Whats is Gibbs free energy (G)?
The amount of unusable energy of a system
Changing of this energy is ^G (thats a triangle)
SPONTANEITY= occurs without added energy
53
Exergonic vs endergonic reactions?
Exergonic = (neg ^G) release energy (reactants have more free energy than products) (spontaneous) (catabolic)
Endergonic = (pos ^G) store energy (products have more free energy than reactants) (anabolic) (not spontaneous...energy must be added)
54
A cell that has reached equilibrium is _________?
DEAD
55
Tell me about the chemical work, transport work, and mechanical work that cells do?
Chemical work = Endergonic reactions (forming polymers)
Transport work = Pumping substances across membranes
Mechanical work = moving cilia
*cells manage energy resources by ENERGY COUPLING. energy coupling requires ATP
56
What does ATP stand for and tell me abit more about it?
Adenosine Triphosphate.
1 adenosine molecule bonded to a ribose sugar with 3 phosphate groups attached.
Can be broken into Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) via hydrolysis
57
Autotrophs vz heterotrophs?
Autotrophs = (producers) produce their own energy via photosynthesis
Heterotrophs = (consumers) get energy by comsuming plants or other animals
58
Oxidation vs reduction?
Oxidation = loss of electrons
Reduction = gaining electrons
Oxidation reduction (REDOX) reactions
*happens in exergonic reactions
59
What are the electron carriers in cellular respiration?
NAD (nicatinamide adenine dinucleotide)
FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide)
60
What are the 3 stages of cellular respiration?
1) Gycolosis
2) Pyruvate oxidation & (Citric acid cycle)
3) Oxidative Phosphorylation (ETC and chemiosmosis) (90% ATP is made in the step)
61
Tell me about gycolysis
-Takes place in cytoplasm
-Does not require oxygen
-6-C glucose is split into 2 3-C pyruvates
-2ATP used to split initial glucose
Reactants = glucose molecule, 2 NAD+, 2 ADP, 2ATP
Products= 2 3-C pyruvates, 2 NADH, 4 ATP (net gain of 2 due to investment)
62
What is the evolutionary significance of glycolysis?
Ancient prokaryotes were thought to use glycolysis to make ATP long before there was oxygen in our atmosphere.
no oxygen in our atmosphere until 2.7 billion years ago
63
Explain pyrutvate oxidation?
-Happens in the intermembrane space of the mitochondion. (between inner and outer membrane)
-Links glycolysis to the citric acid cycle
-2 3-C pyruvates must be converted to Acetyl Coenzyme A (acetyl CoA)
-Reactants= Pyruvate molecule, NAD+(electron acceptor), Coenzyme A (activates acetyl group in next step)
-Products= Acetyl CoA, CO2 released out of cell, NADH (electron carriers for ETC)
64
Where does the citric acid cycle occur?
The mitochonrial matrix
65
What are the products of the citric acid cycle?
2 CO2
3 NADH
1 FADH2
2 ATP
66
Tell me more about what Axetyl CoA does when it enters the Krebs cycle
It enters the cycle and the Acetyl group (2C) joins with oxaloacetate (4C) to make Ctirate (6C). Coenzyme A is recycled
67
ARE WE GOING TO FUCKING WORK NOW?
LETS FIND OUT
68
What are the electron carriers that donate their electrons to the ETC?
Donate NADH FADH2 to the inner membrane folds called Cristae in the mitochondria for the oxidative phosphorylation
69
Briefly break down what happens in the ECT
NADH and FADH2 pass their high energy electrons to a series of proteins embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane known as the ECT
NADH and FADH2 become oxidized back to NAD+ and FAD.
70
What is the ECT proton gradient?
The energy that is released from the electrons is used to pump H+ ions from the mitochondrial matrix into the inter membrane space (proton gradient)
71
Does the ECT make ATP?
No. ATP is made in the end but during chemiosmosis. They break down free energy. rewrite this card idk what i was doing
72
What is chemiosmosis?
The passive movement if ions down their gradients across a membrane. H+ passively moves down its concentration gradient from the inter membrane space to the mitochondrial matrix via ATP Sybthase (protein enzyme)
73
What does ATP synthase do?
It's an enzyme. Every H+ proton that travels through it, it will phosphorylated ADP into ATP
74
What is oxidative phosphorylation in regards to chemiosmosis?
The energy flow caused by the reduction if oxygen is coupled to the endergonic process of synthesizing ATP
75
What percentage if energy from glucose gets transferred into ATP during cellular respiration?
40% 32 ATP
76
What can convert inorganic forms of energy into organic (chemical forms)?
Autotrophs
77
What are Phototrophs?
Plants, algae, some bacteria. take inorganic energy (light) and make it into organic energy (sugar) PHOTOSYNTHESIS
78
What are the reactants and products of photosynthesis?
Reactants: CO2 and H2O (with the help of light)
Products: C6H12O6 (sugar) and 6O2 (oxygen gas) (byproduct)
79
What are the 2 main stages of photosynthesis?
1) Light reactions: light-dependent reactions (occur in the thylakoid) (Photo)
2) Calvin cycle: Light-independent reactions (occur in the stroma) (synthesis)
80
What happens in the light-dependent reactions and the calvin cycle?
Light-dependent reactions: ATP and NADPH synthesis using light energy. (H2O is used and O2 is released)
Calvin cycle: ATP and NADPH are used to reduce CO2 and turn it into sugars (carbon fixation)
81
Where does photosynthesis occur in a cell?
Chloroplasts
82
What do chloroplasts do?
Absorb visible light (400-700nm) energy and convert it into chemical energy
83
Where are chloroplasts found in a leaf?
In plants they are found in the Mesophyll of a leaves
84
What are chloroplasts?
Double membranous organelles that contain flattened sacs thylakoids which are stacked into (grana or granum)
85
What is found in the stroma of a chloroplast? also wtf is stroma
Stroma is the inner dense fluid in the chloroplast.
it has pigments, DNA, ribosomes and enzymes
86
Where do you find chlorophyll (green pigment) in a chloroplast?
Membranes of the thylakoid
*important in harvesting light energy
87
How do pigments work?
Pigments absorb all visible light (400-700nm) and reflect or transmit the rest.
Different pigments absorb different wavelengths.
(eg) chlorophyll- takes in all light energy but reflects and transmits green light
88
What is the main photosynthetic pigment?
Chlorophyll a (found in the thylakoid in the chloroplasts)
89
What do chlorophyll B and carotenoids do?
B: broadens the spectrum used for photosynthesis
Carotenoids: absorb excessive light that would damage the chlorophyll
***both are accessory pigments
90
Name 3 types of pigments you would find in chloroplasts?
chlorophyll a, b, and carotenoids.
all absorb violet-blue and red light well
90
Name 3 types of pigments you would find in chloroplasts?
chlorophyll a, b, and carotenoids.
all absorb violet-blue and red light well
91
what is action spectrum?
shows the effects of different wavelengths on a particular process.
92
What is the main photosynthetic pigment?
Chlorophyll a (found in thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts)
93
What is ground state and excited state and how does it relate to photosynthesis?
Ground state: When a pigment hasnt absorbed and light.
Excited state: When a pigment HAS absorbed light (unstable).
***when excited electrons fall back to "ground state" this is where energy can be released in the forms of photons or light. (This energy released is used to synthesize glucose in photosynthesis)
94
Photosynthesis: Briefly say what happens in the light reaction?
Photosynthetic pigments are excited by light energy, transferring electrons to NADP+ and forming ATP.
Water goes into granum and comes out oxygen.
NADP+ oxidizes and reduced NADPH.
These are both used in the Calvin cycle
ADP oxidizes and reduced ATP
95
Photosynthesis: Briefly tell me about the Calvin cycle.
Uses ATP and NADPH (from the light reaction) to synthesis sugars from CO2.
CO2 goes into the granum and Sugar comes out.
96
What are photosystems?
Pigment-protein complexes in the thylakoid membrane that become excited by light and lead to the eventual reduction of NADP+ and synthesis of ATP.
They consist of light-harvesting complexes around a reaction center complex
97
What are light-harvesting complexes?
Pigments like chlorophyll bound to proteins
98
What is the reaction-center complex?
A special chlorophyll pigments and a primary electron acceptor
99
what is the difference of action spectrum and absorbance spectrum?
i dont fucking know.
100
Quick run down of light entering the a chloroplast and how it moves within a photosystem?
-Light hits leaf
-Passes into the chloroplasts
-Excites the pigments in the light harvesting complex
-Energy gets transferred through pigments and then into the reaction center complex.
-Special pair of chlorophyll a pigments donate an electron to the "primary electron carrier".
101
What is the first photosystem to be activated?
Photosystem II (PS II)
The reaction centres chlorophyll a is called (680nm) because it is best at absorbing wavelengths at 680nm, red light.
102
What is the second photosystem to be activated?
Photosystem I (PS I) so fucked i know
The reaction centers chlorophyll a is called (P700) because it is best at absorbing wavelengths at 700nm, far red light
103
What do the two photosystems do together?
Work together to use light energy to generate ATP and NADPH in "linear electron flow"
104
Where does the linear electron flow start? and explain it abit.
Photosystem II
When a photon hits a pigment within PS II, it passes on untill it excites P680.
P680 is now excited and passes an electron to the primary electron acceptor. (P680 is now P680+ and is ionized)
Electron from H2O are now pulled and transferred to P680+ thus reducing it back to P680.
This splits H2O into 2H and O2 which is released as a byproduct
105
Photosynethesis: What occurs when electrons are passed down the electron transport chain from PS II to PS I?
Energy released by the fall of electrons down the ETC causes the formation of a proton gradient. Which leads to ATP synthesis
106
What happens to PS I when it donates its electron to the primary electron acceptor?
Instead of H2O reducing P700, P700 gets an electron from P680 that was passed down the ETC.
107
Where do the electrons go after the primary electron acceptor receives its electron from P700?
-Each electron from PS I "falls" to FERREDOXIN (Fd)
-Electrons are then transferred to NADP+ + Reductase (enzyme) which pass on and get reduced to NADPH
-High energy electrons of NADPH are used to drive the CALVIN cycle
108
Photosynthesis: ATP is created via Chemiosmosis. Tell me about it
-When elctrons are travelling between photosystems, H+ ions are passed from the stroma to the thylakoid space.
-ATP synthase allows these H+ ions to go back via chemiosmosis (creating ATP in the process)
109
What does the Calvin cycle need to function?
ATP and NADPH
110
What is the purpose of the light reactions in photosynthesis?
To produce ATP and NADPH for the calvin cycle
111
What is the cyclic electron flow?
Sometimes light reactions become cyclic rather than linear.
Only happens in PS I.
Produces only ATP (No NADPH)
112
What is the purpose of th calvin cycle?
To turn CO2 into sugar
113
Clavin cycle. How many cycles must take place to produce 1 3carbon sugar?
3 cycles
114
What are the 3 phases of the Calvin cycle?
1) Carbon fixation
2) Reduction
3) Regeneration of RuBP
115
What happens in the first stage of the Calvin cycle?
Carbon fixation.
-CO2 gets "fixed" by attaching it to a RuBP (Ribulose biphosphate) a 5carbon acceptor.
-Reaction gets catilyzed by Rubisco (carboxylase).
-Unstable 6carbon sugar breaks down into 3PGA (Phosphoglycerate)
116
What happens in the second stage of the Calvin cycle?
Reduction
-Requires ATP & NADPH
-Reduction occurs when ATP (from light reaction) phosphoylates 3PGA into 1 3BPG (biphosphoglycerate).
-NADPH reduces 1 3BPG into G3P
-G3P is used to make sugar
117
What happens in the third stage of the Calvin cycle?
Regeneration
-5 3carbon G3P molecules get rearranged (using ATP) into 3 5carbon RuBP molecules.
-This allows another turn on the cycle
118
What is photorespiration?
Wasteful process.
-When its hot some plants close their stromata to stop from drying out.
-reduces access to CO2 (so it lowers the rate of photosynthesis).
-O2 builds up
119
What are C3 plants?
Plants going through photorespiration.
-Rubisco uses O2 instead of CO2.
-Produces 2 carbon compound
120
Why is photorespiration wasteful?
-Consumes O2, releases CO2 but NO ATP or sugar is produced.
-Wastes 50% of carbon fixed in the calvin cycle
121
What is fermentation?
The regeneration of NAD+ so that glycolosis can continue to produce ATP for a cell.
122
What are Obligate aerobes?
Absolutely need Oxygen for ATP production
123
What are Obligate anaerobes?
Cant survive in the presence of Oxygen and thus carry out fermentation?
124
What are Facultative anaerobes?
Can do both aerobic and anaerobic respiration. Pyruvate has a fork in the metabolic road that leads to both options.
125
What is alcohol fermentation?
Pyruvate is reduced to ethanol in 2 steps, with the first releasing CO2.
*used for beer and wine
126
What is Lactic acid fermentation?
Pyruvate is reduced to Lactate.
*used for cheese and yogurt
