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A&P I 1st half > Lecture I 1st half histology and tissues > Flashcards

Lecture I 1st half histology and tissues Flashcards

1
Q

sebaceous galants

A

Sebaceous glands are flask-shaped and have short ducts opening into hair follicles, Holocrine secretion style , Sebum—oily secretion of sebaceous glands onto skin surface

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2
Q

stratum granulosum

A

four thin five thick. more in thick than in thin. keratinocytes contain dark-staining granules

Stratum granulosum- four thin five thick
Keratohyalin granules release filaggrin binds keratin into coarse, tough bundles, to prevent water
Cells produce tough envelope proteins beneath their membranes
Membrane-coating vesicles release lipid mixture that spreads out over cell surface and waterproofs it
Keratinocytes’ organelles degenerate and the cells die

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3
Q

What is positive feedback?

A

• Can sometimes be dangerous (fever)- positive feedback fetus’ head pushes against cervix, nerves send signals to brain, brain stimulates pituaitary to secrete oxuytocin, oxytocin stimulates uterin contraction, fetus’ head applies more pressure to cervix and cycle repeats, strengthen.

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4
Q

epithelial cut

A

multiply migrate beneath scan scar tissue Nat show while undergoing fibrosis remodeling several weeks to two years

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5
Q

stratified epithelial

A

o stratified: Range from 2 to 20 or more layers of cells
o Some cells rest directly on others
o Named for the shapes of their apical surface cells
o 4 types
o Stratified squamous (looks like smooth muscle but cells below apical have different shapes and have connective tissue underneath)
o Stratified cuboidal
o Stratified columnar
o Transitional

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6
Q

short bones

A

wrist or ankle

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7
Q

elastic cartilage

A

conspicuous elastic fibers. weblike mesh and lacunae, covered by perichondreium, external ear epiglottis, provides flexible organic support

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8
Q

osteocytes

A

tiny lacunae between lamellae occupied by mature bone cells

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9
Q

types of bones

A

Flat bones, Long bones, Short bones, Irregular bones, Types, Spongy (cancellous bone loosely organized-tribecular covered in pericneum)), Compact (dense outer shell of bone, harder outer cover)

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10
Q

hair issues?

A

Alopecia- thinning of hair or baldness aging
Pattern baldness- allele for it dominant hair lost unevenly along scalp mostly men because high level oftestoterone required
Hirsutism- excessive or undesirable hair growth ovarian tumors or hypersecretion testosterone by adrenal cortex

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11
Q

What are cranial, post-cranial, axial, appendicular?

A

cranial (skull) and post-cranial (below hips)
axial (orange skull, spine, and sacram of pelvis, rib cage (thorax), and sternum, and appendicular skeleton lumbs and conection portions of that

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12
Q

epidermis

A

keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. lacks blood cells, sparse nerve endings for touch and pain. dead cells packed w/ tough protein keratin. lacks blood vessels and depends on diffusion of nutrients from underlying connective tissue, sparse nerve endings in dermis.

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13
Q

periosteum

A

a membrane that lines the outer surface of all bones, except at the joints of long bones. Perichondrium-a layer of dense irregular connective tissue which surrounds the cartilage of developing bone; Once vascularized, the perichondrium becomes the periosteum.

bone covered w/ sheath, tough outer fibrous layer of collagen and inner osteogenic layer (growth and healing) of bone-forming cells w/ perforating collagen fibers throughout providing strong attachment and continuity from muscle to tendon to bone
covers bone as whole similar to perichondrium of cartilage.

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14
Q

metaphysis

A

growth plate where bone is going to gain length.

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15
Q

first-degree

A

only epidermis, redness, edema, swelling, and pain

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16
Q

disuse atrophy

A

from lack of use

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17
Q

chondroblasts

A

(build matrix of cell exclude layers and bexome when trapped by matrix creating) . product cartilage secrete matrix surrounded till they become lacunae.

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18
Q

chondrocytes

A

(made from xhondroblasts communication within cells) heals slowly
once enclosed by lacunae cells are chondrocytes devoid of blood capillaries diffiusion have glycosaminoglycans and collagen classified hyalne, elastic, and fibrocartilage. elastic and hylane surrounded by perichondrium sheath of dense irregular connective tissue reserve population chondroblasts between perichondrium and cartilage allows to grow cap ends of long bones

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19
Q

• four primary tissues

A

mass of similar cells and cell products that form a discrete region of an organ and performs specific function: epithelial, connective, nervous and muscular tissue.

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20
Q

long bones

A

humerus, fibula, metacarpals, metatarsals, and phalanges act as levers acted upon by skeletal muscle to produce major body movements

outside of osseous w/ compact dense bone enclosing medullary cavity (bone marrow). ¾ bone

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21
Q

other pigments?

A

Hemoglobin—pigment in red blood cells. closer on lips
Carotene—yellow pigment acquired from egg yolks and yellow/orange vegetables. concentrated in stratum corneum and subcutaneous fat skin of feet and calluses of heel
cyanosis-blueness of skin from oxygen deficiency.
erythemia- abdnormal redness of skin. exercise hot weather, sunburn, anger, and embarrassment. increased blood flow in dilated cutaneous blood vessels
pallor- pale or ashen color occurs when little blood flow through skin white of dermal collagen shows through, emotional stress, low bp, shock, cold, anemia.
albinism- pale genetics
jaundice- excessive bilirubin- hemoglobin breakdown in excess
hematoma- bruise clotted blood.

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22
Q

parts of nail?

A

Nail plate—hard part of the nail.
Free edge: overhangs the fingertip
Nail body: visible attached part of nail
Nail root: extends proximally under overlying skin
Nail fold—surrounding skin rising above nail
Nail groove—separates nail fold from nail plate
Nail bed—skin underlying the nail plate hyponychium,
Nail matrix—growth zone (mitotic) of thickened stratum basale at proximal end of nail. mitosis in the matrix accounts for growth of nail obscuring underltying dermal blood vessels w/ lunule proximal end white crescent
Eponychium (cuticle)—narrow zone of dead skin overhanging proximal end of nail

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23
Q

2 layers of hypodermis

A

Hypodermis & Subcutaneous fat (predominately of adipose tissue, energy reservoir and thermal insulation in certain areas) . areolar and adipose tissue, pad body and bind skin to everything underneath has to go through this to below otherwise drugs don’t go through. subcutaneous fat thicker in women thinner in kids and elderly

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24
Q

fibrous tissue

A

(areolur) most diverse slender whispy branches fibers and ground substance forming matrixLocation: Underlies epithelia, in serous membranes, between muscles, passageways for nerves and blood vessels.)

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25
Q

exocrine and endocrine

A

o Unicellular glands can be either
o Some organs have both endocrine and exocrine functions
• Examples: liver, gonads, pancreas

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26
Q

holocene

A

accumulate before disintegrate cell fragments and synthesized fragments eyelids. oil glands of scalp and skin, and glands of eyelids
o May be only epithelial, only connective, or a mix of epithelial, connective, and muscular tissues

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27
Q

o simple columnar epithelia:

A

linging of GI tract, uterus kidney, and uterine tubes. Nucei oval shaped and stretcher with microvilli. absorption, secretiob, egg

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28
Q

spongy bone

A

blood, circular piece marrow, dark pieces calcified cartilage red bone marrow. with lighter piece spicules hardened bone matrix (osteocytes w/ lacunae but no rings), line has growing hyaline cartilage

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29
Q

intramembranous ossification

A

Produces flat bones of skull and clavicle in fetus, Thickens long bones throughout life. between two membranes, embryonic tissue yellowish tan. osteocytes and osteid tissue deposit minerals to deposit tissue and bring blood for bone tissue w/ osteoblasts depositing making matrix and building bone. marrow spaces sticking around w/ calcification building bone stuck w/in own stuff and become osteocytes. osteocytes devleop communicated replacing embryonic mesenchyme w/ bone harter outer layer periosteum outer bone creating diplo bone in between. compact bone osteoblasts push amtrix further out w/ dense matrix further out middle spongy bone and bone marrow caivities. wont have to identify development

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30
Q

other factors affecting bone

A

At least 20 or more hormones, vitamins, and growth factors affect osseous tissue
Bone growth especially rapid in puberty and adolescence
Estrogen has stronger effect than testosterone on bone growth
Anabolic steroids cause growth to stop

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31
Q

• In muscle cells: changes in voltage result in contraction, shortening of the cel

A
  • Elongated cells that are specialized to contract in response to stimulation
  • Primary job is to exert physical force on other tissues and organs
  • Creates movements
  • Important source of body heat
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32
Q

three types of hair?

A

lanugo, villus, terminal

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33
Q

organ

A

structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a particular function visibly distinguishable form adjacent features. can be within an organ. hair, nail, gland, nerve and blood vessel is organ within itself

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34
Q

areolar tissue

A

epithelium- loosely organized, abundant blood vessels, emtype space. random directions of collagen, elastic and reticular presnt skin and mucous membranes. surrounds blood vessels, nerves, muscle, tendon, epithelium rest on leukocytes travel freely
areolar or dense irregular. large space areolar, thicker budnles little space dense irregular.

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35
Q

fibrosis

A

replacement of damaged cells with scar tissue composed of collagen by fibroblasts doesn’t return function

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36
Q

sweat

A

Sweat—begins as a protein-free filtrate of blood plasma produced by deep secretory portion of gland
Some sodium chloride and other small solutes remain in the sweat
Some drugs are excreted in sweat
On average, 99% water, with pH range of 4 to 6
Insensible perspiration—500 mL/day
Diaphoresis—sweating with wetness of the skin
2 types: Apocrine and Merocrine/Eccrine

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37
Q

what are the kinds of muscular tissue?

A

specialized to contract when stimulated and exert physical force on other tissues, organs, or fluid. include: skeletal (multiple nuclei adjacent to plasma membrane, striated [light and dark regions] and voluntary), cardiac (shorter cells cardiomiacities branched or notched at ends only one nucleus light stained region glycogen w/ end junctions of intercalated discs), and smooth (lacks striations, myocytes fusiform and short one central nucleus visceral muscle

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38
Q

ddermal papilla

A

vascular region hair w/ sole source of nutrition

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39
Q

boundary between epidermis and dermis

A

boundary between epidermis and dermis is usually wavey fingerlike expenstions of dermal papillae and downward epidermal of papillae are epidermal ridges interlocking in arrangement resist slipping.

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40
Q

Squamous cell carcinoma

A

Arises from keratinocytes of stratum spinosum. raised reddened scaly appearance
metasistize in lymphnodes then spread, chance of receovery good if not spread
Lesions usually on scalp, ears, lower lip, or back of the hand
Have raised, reddened, scaly appearance later forming a concave ulcer
Chance of recovery good with early detection and surgical removal
Tends to metastasize to lymph nodes and may become lethal

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41
Q

What are fibroblasts?

A
  • make fiber produce brown substance, macrophages- attack foreign material and start immune system from monocytes, leukocytes- white blood cells neutrophils (attack bacteria), lymphocytes (mark antigen), plasma (lymphocytes will turn into when foreign antigens), mast (blood clots heparin inhibit clotting and histamine increases blood flow), adipocytes ( store fat molecules)
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42
Q

bone-

A

Bone (osseous) tissue is a calcified connective tissue.
osseous tissue, hard calcified connective tissue composes skeleton. bones consist of osseous tissue, cartilage, bone marrow, dense irregular connective tissue. intervertebral discs pads of shock-absorbing cartilage in knee joints. resists compression and absorbs shock in some joints between dense and hyaline. compact bone physical support for body, leverage of muscle action, protective viscera, reservoir calcium

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43
Q

Feedback mechanism

A
  • Negative feedback allows for dynamic equilibrium within a limited range around a set point
  • Loss of homeostatic control causes illness or death
  • Because feedback mechanisms alter the original changes that triggered them, they are called feedback loops. negative and positive homeostasis. cold vessesl and vasculature constrict, vasodilation causes sweating opening up and becoming bigger goal to bring back set point in middle.
  • Person gets up from bed, blood drains from upper body creating homeostatic imablnace, barorectpros above heart respond to drop in blood pressure, send signals to cardiac center of brainstem, cardiac center accelerates heartbeat.
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44
Q

things present in connective tissue?

A 
Fibers
Collagenous
Reticular
Elastic
Ground Substance
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
Proteoglycans
Adhesive glycoproteins
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45
Q

burns

A

UVA and UVB are improperly called “tanning rays” and “burning rays”
Sunscreens protect you from sunburn but unsure if they provide protection against cancer
Burns—leading cause of accidental death
Classified according to depth of tissue involvement

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46
Q

what are two skin pigments?

A

eumelanin-brownish black, pheomelanin-reddish yellow sulfur.

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47
Q

nerve and muscle tissue

A
  • Nerves and musclse tissue- muscle cell contraction shortening of muscle
  • Excitability—ability to respond to stimuli by changing membrane potential based on
  • Membrane potential—electrical charge difference (voltage) that occurs across the cell membraneA
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48
Q

osseous titssue

A

Osseous Tissue: A mature bone remains a metabolically active organ
Involved in its own maintenance of growth and remodeling
Exerts a profound influence over the rest of the body by exchanging minerals with tissue fluid.
builds and shapes itself so it doesnt snap under specific forces load of body on head and forces placed spread throughout bone shift along medial aspect of bone.

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49
Q

lighter skinned people

A

Lighter skinned people
Melanin clumped near keratinocyte nucleus less color
Little melanin seen beyond stratum basale
breaks down more rapidly so not seen beyond stratum basale.

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50
Q

stratum spinosum

A

keratinocytes, desmosomes spiny look (keep cells from pulling apart and resist mechanical stress), several layers of keratinocytes thickest. appear flatter w/ dendritic cells bound to eachother by tight function.

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51
Q

terminal

A

longer, coarser, and more heavily pigmented. eyelashes, eyebrows, and scalp axillary and pubic hair

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52
Q

osteocyte

A

Former osteoblasts that have become trapped in the matrix they deposited (reside in lacunae, interconnected by canaliculi-lines). contact both other bone cells. resorb bone matrix other deposit. bone remodeling from bone-dissolving osteaclasts and depositing osteoblasts.
Communication- spiderlike projections connecting longer vertical lines and cell bodies
Strain stressors- flow in extracellular fluid of lacunae and canaliculi sensory cilia for bone remodeling. tell osteoblasts to build more bone or osteoclasts to resorp
Matrix of osseous tissue is, by dry weight, about one-third organic and two-thirds inorganic matter

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53
Q

dense regular connective tissue

A

tendons and bone connecting to moving things allow for stretch so tissues can move and not snap. Tendons attach muscles to bones and ligaments hold bones together

collagen fibers close packed, little space, and parallel to eachother. tendons and ligaments allows for pullingof skeletal fibroblasts few bood vessels.
woody look long collagen fibers nuclei to fibroblasts flattened and running in same direction shortened)

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54
Q

Malignant melanoma

A

Skin cancer that arises from melanocytes
Less than 5% of skin cancers, but most deadly form
Can be successfully removed if caught early, but if it metastasizes it is usually fatal
Greatest risk factor: familial history of malignant melanoma
Highest incidence in men, redheads, and people who had severe sunburn as a child

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55
Q

What is pelvic?

A

extends inferiorily to brim of pelvis and is continuos with abdominal cavity but narrows and tilts posteriosrly containing excretory

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56
Q

medulla

A

loosely arranged collection of cells and air spaces core of loosely arranged cells and air spaces. thick hairs prominent, narrow in median, absent in thin

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57
Q

intraperitoneal

A

encirculed by peritoneum and connected to posterior body wall

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58
Q

mineralization or calcification

A 
the hardening process of bone
Individual bones (organs) consist of bone tissue, bone marrow, cartilage, adipose tissue, nervous tissue, and fibrous connective tissue
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59
Q

hair?

A

Slender filament of keratinized cells growing from a tube in the skin called a hair follicle. compacted hard keratin, cross-linkages between different keratin molecules making light or denser (cross-linkages)
(pilus keratinized cells that grows from oblique tube hair follice, all have similar density just texture and pigmentation
We lose about 50-100 hairs daily
Hair growth—scalp hairs grow 1 mm per 3 days

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60
Q

functions of connective tissue

A 
ighly variable vascularity
•	Functions
o	Support
o	Connect
o	Protect
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61
Q

telogen

A

resting stage. papilla reachs bylb 1-3 months. papilla reaches bulge. catagen or telogen hair may be pushed out.

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62
Q

types of loose connective tissue

A
  • Areolar

* Reticular

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63
Q

nutrient foramina

A

blood vessels penetrate into bone through minute holes

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64
Q

effector

A

cell or organ that carries out the final corrective action to restore homeostasis

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65
Q

What is the self amplifying cycle

A

• Person gets up from bed, blood drains from upper body creating homeostatic imablnace, barorectpros above heart respond to drop in blood pressure, send signals to cardiac center of brainstem, cardiac center accelerates heartbeat.

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66
Q

holism

A

emergent properties of the whole organism cannot be predicted from the properties of the separate parts. humans are more than sum of part

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67
Q

organic matter in bones

A

synthesized by osteblasts includes Collagen, carbohydrate–protein complexes, such as glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans, and glycoproteins
Inorganic matter
85% hydroxyapatite most inorganic
10% calcium carbonate
Other minerals
Bone is a composite material—a combination of a ceramic (hydroxyapatite) support weight w/out sagging and a polymer (collagen) w/ sacrificial bonds that break under stress protecting bone from fracture by dissipating shock..

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68
Q

vellus

A

fine, pale hair that replaces lanugo by time of birth./ 2/3 of hair of women 1/10 of men, all hair of children.

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69
Q

fractures and their repair

A 
Stress fracture
Pathological fracture
Fractures classified by structural characteristics
Direction of fracture line
Break in the skin
Multiple pieces
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70
Q

wolff’s law of bone

A

Wolff’s law of bone: architecture of bone determined by mechanical stresses placed on it w/ bone adapting to withstand stresses devleoping along lines of stress placed on it
Remodeling is a collaborative and precise action of osteoblasts and osteoclasts
Bony processes grow larger in response to mechanical stress

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71
Q

senile atrophy

A

through normal aging

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72
Q

mixed glands

A

• Contain both serous and mucous cell types and produce a mixture of the two types of secretions

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73
Q

• homeostasis

A

the ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal condition

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74
Q

collagenous connective tissue

A

collagen, tough and flexible, resist stretcher. 25% of protein, gelatin, leather and glue, white fibers. section coarse wavy bundles making up tendons, ligaments and dermis of skin

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75
Q

integrating control center

A

control center that proesses the sensory information makes a decision and directs reposne

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76
Q

catagen

A

degeneration stage- mitosis stops, base of hair keratinizs dark clump. 2-3 weeks. mitsosis in hair matrix ceases and sheath cells below bulge die. follicle shrink and dermal papilla draws up toward bulg. base of hair keratinizes into hard club hair.

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77
Q

osteoclasts

A

Bone-dissolving cells found on bone surface.
Develop from same bone marrow stem cells that give rise to blood cells (different origin from other bone cells). found on bone surface
Very large cells formed from fusion of several stem cells osteocytes, 3-4 nuclei side facing bone has ruffled border enhancing efficiency of boen resportion.

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78
Q

yellow marrow

A

found in adults
Fatty marrow that does not produce blood
Can transform back to red marrow in the event of chronic anemia

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79
Q

o simple cuboidal epithelia

A

liver, thyroid, mammary and salivary glands, bronchioles, and kidney tubules. perfectly round nuclei, ansor[tion and secretion and mucous

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80
Q

o simple squamous epithelia

A

: located in alveoli, glomeruli, endothelium, and serosa. secretes serous. squished nucleus rapid diffusion and secretion

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81
Q

treatment of fractures

A

Closed reduction
Open reduction
Cast

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82
Q

mineral deposition

A

Mineral deposition (mineralization): process in which calcium, phosphate, and other ions are taken from blood and deposited in bone. Osteoblasts lay down collagen fibers in helical pattern along osteon encursten and hardenmatrix w/ crystals

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83
Q

fibrocartilage

A

move very little discs in back and knee. Chondrocttes paxke din long lines and thick bundles of collagen fibers. Locations: pubic symphysis, menisci, and intervertebral discs
straight noy swuiggly background lighter no elastic

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84
Q

texture

A

related to cross-sectional shape of hair. straight, wavy, and curly dependent on shape (straight-round, wavy-oval, curly-straight)

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85
Q

cryogenic glands

A

• Release whole cells (sperm and egg cells)

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86
Q

dense irregular connective tissue

A

deeper layers of skin and organs move alll different directions bundles and can move any which way unorganized thicker weird bundles of collagen and gland, fibroblasts and spread out, not visible cellsthick bundles of collagen, litte room for cells and ground substance, random unpredictable stress protective capsule

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87
Q

lanugo

A

fine, downy, unpigmented hair that appears on the fetus in the last 3 months of development

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88
Q

• Four types of cells:

A

epithelium, connective, nervous, muscle function from cells and how arraned

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89
Q

mucous glands

A

ral and nasal cavities. Produce glycoprotein, mucin, which absorbs water to form mucus. glycoproteins absorb, goblet cells unicellular

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90
Q

graft options

A

Autograft: tissue taken from another location on the same person’s body
Split-skin graft—taking epidermis and part of the dermis from an undamaged area such as the thigh or buttocks and grafting it into the burned area
Isograft: skin from identical twin

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91
Q

Five epidermal cell types

A

Stem cells- undifferentiated cells divide and give rise to keratinocytes in stratum basale
Keratinocytes- majority of epidermal cells. named for role in synthesizing keratin.
Melanocytes- synthesize melanin shield from UV light. stratum basale shed edges of melanin to tip and shield cell from sun
Tactile cells/Merkel cells- touch receptor cells w/ dermal nerve fibers- basal layer associated w/ dermal nerve.
Dendritic cells/Langerhans cells- stratum spinosum and stratum grandulosum, immune cells guard against toxins, microbes, and panthogens.

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92
Q

epithelium function

A

o functions: protect (barrier to infection, deeper from acid and enzymes skin and stomach), secrete (mucus, sweat, enzymes, hormones, glands), produce, excrete waste (CO2, bile lungs and blood and digestive), absorb (nutrient small intestine), filter (waste blood vessels and kidney, sense (stimuli)

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93
Q

red marrow

A

(myeloid tissue)
Contains hemopoietic tissue—produces blood cells lymphatic organ
In nearly every bone in a child
In adults, found in skull, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, part of pelvic girdle, and proximal heads of humerus and femur

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94
Q

cortical bone

A

on outside of bone

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95
Q

integumentary system?

A

Consists of the skin and accessory organs; hair, nails, and cutaneous glands. most vulnerable of body and more medical treatment than any other par

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96
Q

elastic cartilage

A

conspicuous elastic fibers makes ECM more noticeable. weblike mesh and lacunae, covered by perichondreium, external ear epiglottis, provides flexible organic support . areas that move epiglottis. Biggerchrondroctres by wavy lines elastic fibers. Locations: external ear and epiglottis

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97
Q

What is visceral?

A

covers organ surface, parietal lines inside of body cavity

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98
Q

infarction

A

sudden death of tissue when blood supply is cut off

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99
Q

mineral resorption

A 
Mineral resorption: process of dissolving bone and releasing minerals into blood osteoclasts border ruflfed. hydrogen pumps for space between osteoclasts. hydrochloric acid dissolves bone, acid proteast digests collagen. 
Orthodontic appliances (braces) reposition teeth through resorption and deposit
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100
Q

hair and nails are…

A

Hair, nails, and cutaneous glands are accessory organs (appendages) of the skin. Hair and nails are composed of mostly dead, keratinized cells
stratum corneum is soft kerain, hair and nails are hard keratin
Fingernails and toenails—clear, hard derivatives of stratum corneum. very thin, dead scally cells densely packed together and filled w/ parallel fibers of hard keratin.

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101
Q

three types of skin cancer

A

Three types of skin cancer named for the epidermal cells in which they originate.
basal, squamous, malignant
common in fair skin and oldest individuals. head neck and hands, highest survivial rate

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102
Q

endochondral ossification

A

endochonral ossification- mesnsechym develops into hyaline cartilage model down first bone cells.
cartilage transitions to bone elongating it
Fibrous perichondrium covers and produces chondrocytes w/ cartilage growing. secondary centers of ossification w/ epiphyses cartilage between those stick around Chondrocytes inflate and die, thin walls calfiy. perichondrium produces, perichondreum to periosteum produce osteoblast depoist thin collar of bone cartilage model, reinforcing chondrocytes lacunae merge into single cavity. osteoclasts eat away at cartilage hollwoing out. develop osteoblast secrete minerals build bones replace cartilage model w/ bone cartilage dies and osteoclasts die.

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103
Q

stratum corneum

A

can have 30 dead cells barrier against outside work resisting penetration and water loss. resistant to abrasion, penetration, and water loss. causes wrinkling when to much water is absorbed

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104
Q

bone remodeling

A

Absorption and deposition
Occurs throughout life—10% of skeleton per year
Repairs microfractures, releases minerals into blood, reshapes bones in response to use and disuse

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105
Q

exocrine

A

ducts connected to surface, external or internal (pancreas and salivary) ducts pancreas or salivary (liver pancreas and gonads have both). Maintain their contact with surface of epithelium by way of a duct

maintain contact w/ surface via septum then duct convey secretion to surface

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106
Q

unicellular

A

epithelial, nonsecretary exocrine or endocrine Unicellular glands—found in an epithelium that is predominantly nonsecretory. Can be exocrine or endocrine
secretory cells in epithelium nonsecretory endocrine (digestive) or exocrine (respirator)

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107
Q

endothelium

A

circulatory system lined with simple squamous rests on thin layer of areolar tissue, resting on elastic sheet make up a tunica interna (blood vessels) and endocardium of heart

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108
Q

chemicals

A

concentration gradient, charged particles electrical gradients, and heat with thermal gradients

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109
Q

hair follicle & matrix

A

Hair Follicle Consists of: Dermal papilla

Hair matrix- hair’s growth center all high up are dead.

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110
Q

parathyroid hormone

A

secreted by parathyroid glands on posterior surface of thyroid
PTH released when calcium levels low in blood. stimulates osteoblasts to secrete increasing bone resorption. promotes calcium resorption by kidneys less lost in kidneys. calciltriol increase in kidney. inhbiitng collagen synthesis to osteoblasts
PTH raises calcium blood level by four mechanisms

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111
Q

endocrine

A

no ducts use blood

lose contact w/ surface w/ no ducts but high density blood capilarries w/ hormones directly into blood.

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112
Q

follicle

A

Extends into dermis and possibly hypodermis
Epithelial root sheath- extension of epidermis conssits of stratified squamous epithelium and lies immediately adjacent to hair root.
Connective tissue root sheath
diagonal tube contains hair root
bulge- deep end of follicle, source of stem cells for follicle growth. connective root sheath derived from dermis and composed of collagenous connective tissue surrounding epithelial sheath and somewhat denser than adjacent dermis

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113
Q

muscle types

A

o Skeletal
o Cardiac
o Smooth

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114
Q

cardiac

A

heart, branches shorter than skeletal, beaches off not parallel like tree, striations along, intercalculated discs (dark pink lines communications and signals between branching) where connecting is the disc, cells with nuclei stretches but centralized
(dark pink lines communications and signals between branching intercalated discs, places where long tubes have branches that interconnect)

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115
Q

hypodermis

A

below dermis subcutaneous not part of skin. indistinct difference but more areolar and adipose tissue, padding body and binds skin to underlying tissue.

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116
Q

blood

A

• Blood: fluid connective tissue, transport cells and dissolved Magger from place to place. Platelets (little red/purple lines), erythrocytes (red blood cells pale centers no nuclei, leukocytes (white blood cells defense larger variously shaped nuclei, larger purple mesh)

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117
Q

bone cells

A

osteogenic, osteoblast, osteoclast, osteocyte

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118
Q

epithelium

A

avascular no blood vessel lie on vessel rich connective tissue
o epithelial are sheets of closely adhering cells, one or more cells thick
o covers body surface and lines body cavities. generally exposed to environment or other side of organs, nourshied by underlying tissue glands and ducts
o cells are very close together, high rate of mitosis, parts of cell: basement memberane, basal surface (line of dark purple cells) , apical surface (away) sitting on connective tissue near basal membrane (collagen, glycoprotein, protein-carbohydrate complexes acts as anchor binds growth factor dictate devlopment

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119
Q

skin has five types of glands

A

merocrine sweat glands, apocrine sweat glands, sebaceous glands, ceruminous glands, and mammary glands
sudoriferous glands- of two kinds: apocrine and merocrine

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120
Q

receptor

A

structure that senses change in body

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121
Q

bone marrow

A

soft tissue occupying marrow cavities of long bones and small spaces of spongy bone and larger central cnaals.

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122
Q

skin functions

A

Sensation- react to heat, cold, touch, texture, pressure, vibration, and tissue injury found on face, palms, fingers, soles, nipples and genitals.
Heat regulation- 10X as much blood flow, nerve endings monitor body surface temp. body retains heat by constricting blood vessels of dermis, keeping warm blood deeper in body loses excess by dilating vesicles. sweat glands secrete perspiration.
Absorption
Protection- trauama and infection w/ keratin and desmosomes, from excess water and barrier to UV
Excretion- waste from kidneys, body odor
Secretion- sweat, pheromones

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123
Q

retroperitoneal

A

lie against posterior body wall and covered by peritneum only on side facing cavity (kidneys, uretrs, adrenal glands, pancreas, aorta and inferior vena cava.

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124
Q

cuticle

A

layers of thin scaly cells. multiple layers of very thin, scaly cells that overlap each other interlock resist pulling onhair.

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125
Q

stratified squamous

A

o Most widespread epithelium in the body
o Deepest layers undergo continuous mitosis
o Two kinds of stratified squamous epithelia
o Keratinized
o Nonkeratinized

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126
Q

osteolgy

A

study of bone

127
Q

Reductionism

A

large, complex systems can be understoodby studying their simpler componnets, essential to scientific thinking. build from small systems to large.

128
Q

transitional

A

when filled with substance organ expands and contract are flexible and can change shape. Giant empty shape, difficult to see connective tissue with stacked cells and hard to differentiate. Locations: ureter and bladder. umbrella cells protect against acid uroplakin recepters iimpermeable to urine

129
Q

types of connective tissue?

A

o Fibrous
o Adipose
o Cartilage
o Bone

130
Q

atrophy

A

shrinkage is specific tissue size of cells or number as you age or don’t use specific muscles.

131
Q

process off repair

A

Severed vessels bleed into cut
– Mast cells and damaged cells release histamine
• Blood plasma seeps into the wound
• Blood clot
• Scab
• Macrophages
• New capillaries sprout from nearby vessels
• Deeper portions of clot become infiltrated by capillaries and fibroblasts
• Epithelial cells around wound multiply and migrate beneath scab
• Underlying connective tissue undergoes fibrosis
• Remodeling (maturation) phase begins
• Cut occurs- vessel severed bleeds into cut, mast cells and cells damaged by cuts produce histamine dilates blood vessels increasing flow to the area making capillaries more permeable. blood plasma releases antibodies and clotting proteins. blood clot forms, knitting edges and inhibiting spread of pathogen from site ofinjury into healing tissue surface dries and harden forming scab seals wounds and blocks infection. macrophages phagocytize and digest tissue debris. New capillaries sprout, deeper proteins infiltrated by capillaries and fibroblasts into granulation tissue. surface epithelial cells around wound multiply and migrate into wounded area beneath. scab loosens and falls off epithelium grow thicker, epithleum regenerates underlying connective tissue fibrosis. capillaries withdrow from fibrosis may or may not show scar tissue.

132
Q

dermatology

A

scientific study and medical treatment of the integumentary system

133
Q

reticular fibrous connective

A

more space than areolar but still see specific fibers, crazy weird random lines surrounded by giant spaces. reticular- Location: lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and bone marrow. thin coated with glycoprotein, spongelike framework spleen and lymph nodes. o Within leukocytes very circular perfect circle
mesh of reticular fibers and fibroblasts, forms frameowkr of lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and bone marrow space filled with blood cells

134
Q

interstitial growth

A

This is interstitial growth—growth from within only cartilage can do
Bone elongation is a result of cartilage growth within the epiphyseal plate
thin wall of cartilage seperate pimary and secondary cartilage. aging skeleton by development of bones. gap between epihphysis and diaphysis close. prinary and secondary cavities unit w/ no more bone growth.
Epiphyses close when cartilage is gone—epiphyseal line of spongy bone marks site of former epiphyseal plate
Lengthwise growth is finished
Occurs at different ages in different bones

135
Q

serous membrane

A

squamous epithelium resting on thin layer of areolar connective tissue, produce watery serous fluid similar to blood serum smooth outer surface of viscera gut viscera organs, body cavities, simple squamous on areola, Internal membrane, covers organs and lines walls of body cavities pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum. mesothelium component

136
Q

temporary grafts

A

(immune system rejection)
Homograft (allograft): from unrelated person
Heterograft (xenograft): from another species
Amnion from afterbirth
Artificial skin from silicone and collagen

137
Q

bone cells

A

Bone is connective tissue that consists of cells, fibers, and ground substance,

138
Q

dermis

A

deeper layer of skin composed of collagen, elastic and reticular fibers, fibroblasts, and fibrous connective tissue. w/ blood vessels, cutaneous glands, and nerve endings

139
Q

Bones and teeth

A

most durable remains of a once-living body

140
Q

calcium homeostasis

A

Calcium Homeostasis
Total of about 1,100 g of calcium in adult body with 99% of it in bones
Normal calcium concentration in blood plasma is 9.2 to 10.4 mg/dL≥
neuron communiction, blood clotting, enzyme cofactor, exocytosis, muscle contraction mineral within bone whenever needed
controlled by urinary, respiratory, and skeletal system pH releasing calcium neutralizes blood
Hypocalcemia—deficient. excitability of nervous system, tremors or spasms because of less differences of charge along cell
Hypercalcemia—excessive less responsive sodium channels, depression emotional disturbances, muscle weakness,sluggish reflexes, and cardiac arrest.
Depends on a balance between dietary intake, urinary and fecal losses, and exchanges between osseous tissue

141
Q

• Anatomical variation:

A

no two humans are exactly alike, there is normal, pelvic kidney, horseshoe kidney and with variations in branches of the aorta. • physiological variation based on sex, age, diet, weight and physical activity

142
Q

diaphysis

A

shaft, provide leverage

143
Q

muscular tissue skeletal

A

• Skeletal- ling bands, nuclei at different surfaces of bands running across muscle fiber. everything pulls to origin sights moves at insertion point
long, threadlike, unbrached cell fibers parallel in longitudinal tissue sections including striations w/ multiple per nuclei that is near the plasma membrane attached to bone except in tongue esophagus lips eyelids urethra and anus. function for body movements, facial expression, posture, breathing, speech, swallowing, control of iurination, defecation, under voluntary control. long tubes w/ striations

Striations- perpendicular to muscle fibers
Voluntary
Muscle cell is a muscle fiber (myofiber)
Connective tissue wrappings- endomesium, perimysium, and epimesium
w/ collagen

144
Q

mucous membranes-

A

lining passages to external environment, sub layer epithelial, laramucosis. digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive 1) epithelium, 2) areolar connective tissue lamina propia 3) smooth muscle muscularis mucosae. absorptive, secretory, and protective, goblet cells, mucpus glands or both keeps from invading tissues and aid in removal from body.

145
Q

what is blood?

A

fluid connective tissue travels through tubular vessels transports cells and dissolved matter. more ground substance (plasma) than cells (formed elements), produced by bone marrow

146
Q

irregular bones

A

vertebrae

147
Q

hair receptors

A

Sensory nerve fibers entwining follicles. entwine each follicle and repond to hair movements.

148
Q

perichondrium

A 
o	Perichondrium—sheath of dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds elastic and most hyaline cartilage (not articular cartilage)
•	Types vary with fiber composition
•	Matrix
o	GAGs
o	Collagen fibers
•	Cells
o	Chondroblasts
o	Chondrocytes
149
Q

ceruminous glands

A

simple, coiled, tubular glands in external ear canal, Their secretion combines with sebum and dead epithelial cells to form earwax (cerumen). makes eardrums waterproof against bacteria, and hair follicles block foreign particles w/ earwax. keeps eardrum pliable waterprrof canal kills backteria and coats gaurdhair

150
Q

flexion lines

A

(flexion creases)—lines on the flexor surfaces of the digits, palms, wrists, elbows. bound to deeper connective tissue.

151
Q

piloerector muscles

A

Smooth muscle attaching follicle to dermis traps in insulating layer of warm air next to skin
Contracts to make hair stand on end (goose bumps)

152
Q

adipose tissue

A

chicken wire clouds and spacing space between arotyclar and areolar energy reservoir
o Adipose tissue (fat)—tissue in which adipocytes are the dominant cell type
o Space between adipocytes is occupied by areolar tissue, nucleus on outside of cells reticular tissue, and blood capillaries
adipocytes dominant cell types, singl or clusters in areolar, space by areolar tissue, reticular and blood. energy.

153
Q

cells in connective tissue

A

fibroblasts, macrophages, leukocytes, plasma cells, can’t cells adipocytes

154
Q

layers of hair in cross section

A

medulla, cortex, cuticle, dermal papilla,

155
Q

apocrine

A

Ex. Mode of milk fat secretion by mammary gland cells. lipids coalesce from cytosol to droplet buds from cell.

Apocrine Sweat Glands: Locations: groin, anal region, axilla, areola, beard area in men not active until puberty
Ducts lead to nearby hair follicles
Produce sweat that is milky and contains fatty acids
Respond to stress and sexual stimulation
Bromhidrosis—disagreeable body odor produced by bacterial action on sweat from apocrine glands exocytosis, larger lumen thicker sweat

156
Q

cutaneous membrane types

A

largest membrane in the body
o Mucous
o Serous

157
Q

concentric lamellae

A

onionlike layers around canal

158
Q

ligament

A

bone to bone

159
Q

friction ridges

A

markings on the fingertips that leave oily fingerprints on surfaces we touch. increasing grasp, allowing better sensing

160
Q

glands

A

epithelial tissue with connective tissue framework
• Cell or organ that secretes substances for use elsewhere in the body or releases them for elimination from the body
o Usually composed of epithelial tissue in a connective tissue framework and capsule
o Secretes and excretes
cell or organ secretes substance for use elsewhere in body or eleiminating waste. secretion (useful to body) or excretion (waste) composed of epithelial tissue w/ supportive connective tissue framework and capsule.

161
Q

types of dense connective tissue

A
  • Dense regular connective tissue

* Dense irregular connective tissue

162
Q

endosteum

A

internal marrow cavity, covers honey-combed surface of spongy bine lining canal system found throughout compacct bone

163
Q

what is cartilage?

A

stiff connective tissue flexible matrix
• Gives shape to ear, tip of nose, and larynx
o Avasaxular- no blood supply nutrition through filtration and diffusion
stiff connective tissue w/ flexible rubbery matrix ex. shape and support nose, ears, and larynx, trache, and thoracic cavity

164
Q

keratinocyte

A

Keratinocytes are produced by mitosis of stem cells. synthesis
New keratinocytes push older ones toward the surface
In 30 to 40 days a keratinocyte makes its way to the skin surface and flakes off (exfoliates) as dander. farther from nutrition source dies off, flatten as pushed to surface. keratin for protein coding vesicles flake off as dander

165
Q

parts of skin

A

stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lusidum, stratum corner

166
Q

regeneration

A

replacement of dead or damaged cells by the same type of cell as before restore normal function

167
Q

cutaneous

A

stratified squamous, dermis and epidermis

168
Q

color

A

due to pigment granules in the cells of the cortex. brown back rich in eumelanin, blonde pheomelanin w/ little eumelanin, red has mix w/ high pheomelanin.

169
Q

what are loose connective tissue

A

empty spots (areolar reticular geo and how fibers laid out . occupied b ground dissolves out made up of areolar and reticular

170
Q

osteogenic

A

Stem cells found in endosteum and inner layer of periosteum (outside of bone)
Arise from embryonic mesenchymal cells in endeosteum and inner layer of periosteum
Multiply continuously and give rise to most other bone cell types

171
Q

what is the composition of bone?

A

1/3 bone composed of collagen fibers and glcosaminoglycans enable to bend under stress. 2/3 minerals calcium and phosphate salta enable bones to withstand compression by weight

172
Q

third-degree

A

epidermis, dermis, and sometimes hypodermis deeper tissues destroyed requires skin graft, fluid replacement, nutrition
degree burns often require skin grafts- burn because of fluid loss and infection 3rd degree burns high percentage of body. toxic eschar because of toxicity.

173
Q

phosphate homeostasis

A

Average adult has 500 to 800 g phosphorus with 85% to 90% of it in the bones
Normal plasma concentration is 3.5 to 4.0 mg/dL
Occurs in two main forms
HPO42− and H2PO4− (monohydrogen and dihydrogen phosphate ions)
Phosphate levels are not regulated as tightly as calcium levels
Calcitriol raises phosphate levels by promoting its absorption by small intestine
PTH lowers blood phosphate levels by promoting its urinary excretion

174
Q

Anatomy

A

The form of things, Physiology is the function

175
Q

hair is made up of?

A

Bulb: a swelling at the base where hair originates in dermis or hypodermis
Root: the remainder of the hair in the follicle
Shaft: the portion above the skin surface

176
Q

functions of hair

A

Alert us of parasites crawling on skin
Retains heat and protects against sunburn
Signify sexual maturity and aid in transmission of sexual scents
Guard hairs (vibrissae)
alerting up when senses things and not allowing particles in

177
Q

thick skin

A

covers palms, soles, and surfaces of fingers and toes due to very thick stratum corneum sweat glands but no hair follicles or sebaceous glands.
Thin skin covers rest of the body, thin stratum corneum, hair follicles, sebaceous and sweat glands.

178
Q

apoptosis

A

Programmed cell death

179
Q

stratified epithelium

A

stacked upon eachother.

180
Q

stratum lusidum

A

only found in thick skin, keratinocytes top layer, clear proteins. thin zone superficial to granulosum only found in thick skin, densely packed w/ eleidin no nuclei or other organelles

181
Q

fibrocartilage

A

coarse, redily visible bundles of collagen. parallel collagen fibers similar to tendon rows of chondrocyte sin lacunae between collagen fibers, no pericardium

182
Q

hyaline

A

don’t move Ron larynx, teacher, Ron to sternum, cells shape and fibers running through, no fibers. Locations: articular cartilage, costal cartilage, trachea, larynx, fetal skeleton

clear, glassy appearance, fine collagen chondrocytes enclosed in lacunae small clusters of 3-4 celsl covered y perichondrium. articular cartilage at end of bones and moving joints, supportive rings and plates trache and bronchi, box around larynx, fetal skeleton. eases joint movements, holds airway open moves voal cords and precurose for speech.

183
Q

histology of compact bones

A

reveals osteons (haversian systems)
Concentric lamellae surround a central (haversian) canal running longitudinally connected by canaliculli
haversian system- basic structural unit of compact bone cylinder of tissue surrounding central canal surrounded by transverse or diagonal passages called perforating canals.
Perforating (Volkmann) canals—transverse or diagonal passages
Circumferential lamellae fill outer region of dense bone
Interstitial lamellae fill irregular regions between osteons
collagen fibers corkscrew down matrix of lamella in helical arrangement like threads of screw w/ helices coil in one direction in one lamella and in opposite direction in next lamella. bone resist tension bending helix loosely coiled like screw and fibersstretched out on longitudinal axis of bone. weight-bearing bone reist compression helix tightly coils and fibers transverse.

184
Q

connective tissue

A

abundant, widely distributed, and histological variable. layer beneath epithelial. More matrix than cells a lot of empty space, blood vessels, Bonding organs to each other and other parts of body ligaments and tendons connective tissue providing support, physical and immune protection (bones and skin) , movement, storage (fat), heat production (fat), metabolism, blood, transport (blood)

185
Q

periosteum

A

covers bone as whole similar to perichondrium of cartilage

186
Q

• matrix (extracellular material) is composed of:

A

Fibrous proteins, Clear gel called ground substance ( water, gases, minerals, nutrients, wastes, hormones) and fluids

187
Q

flat bones-

A

Sandwich-like construction, Two layers of compact bone enclosing a middle layer of spongy bone, like head thin curved plate, sternum, scapula, ribs, and hips. surface of flat bone covered w/ periosteum and marrow spaces w/ endeosteum.

188
Q

spongy bone

A

Lattice of bone, spicules, covered with endosteum
Spaces filled with red bone marrow
Few osteons and no central canals
All osteocytes close to bone marrow resorbed by osteoclast because close
Provides strength with minimal weight
Trabeculae (thin plates) develop along bone’s lines of stress develops more in certain spots and denser area in area a lot of stress and strain

189
Q

tendon

A

bone to muscle

190
Q

gangrene

A

tissue necrosis due to insufficient blood supply (usually involves infection)

191
Q

• Histology

A

study of tissue and how arraangectissue- a group of similar cells and cll products working together to perform a specific role. Primarily epithelium with other tissue type and components

192
Q

what are dense connective tissue

A

( regular versus irregular based on organization). fiber occupies more space than cells and ground substance

193
Q

freckles and moles

A

flat melanized patches vary w/ heridty and exposure. mole elevated patch of melanized skin,

194
Q

what are elastic fibers

A

areolar lots of space random lines. thinner than collagen branch and rejoin eslastin glycoprotein stretch and recoil ability of skin lungs to spring back. Tubes going through collagen fibers. Blood vessels, straight lines. Fibroblasts more regular all different shapes

vocal and spinal ligaments, branching elastic and fibroblasts, larger conspicuous nuclei wavy sheets in large and medium arteries. heart pumps into rties sheets enable to expand and relieve pressure

195
Q

comapct bone

A

compact-cortical (smooshed together dark circles (blood vessels) with lots of circles around it (osteona) and bug creatures (osteocytes with canaliguli)

denser calcified w/ no space external surface of bone
compact bone arranged in cylinders surrounding central haversian or osteonic canals, ru longitudinally through shafts of long bones blood and vessels travel through

196
Q

diploe

A

spongy middle layer. making a moderate blow fracture outside and leave the inner layer of compact bone unharmed

197
Q

anlagen

A

growth stage stem cells multiple hair formed from root sheath make keratin move up and die 6-8 years. stem cells from bulge in follicle multiply and travel downward pushing dermal pailla deeper into skin forming epithelial root sheath. root sheath cells directly above pailla form hair matrix. sheath cells transform into hair cells, synthesize keratin and die as pushed upward. anagen begins anew and cycle repeats itself.
90% of scalp follicles at a given time

198
Q

merocrine

A

tear glands pancetious, endocrine release by Exocytosis: axillaey sweat glands. Examples: tear glands, pancreas, salivary, gastric glands, and others milk sugar and proteins Merocrine Sweat Glands: Also referred to as eccrine sweat glands. cool the body simple tubular gland w/ twisted coil in dermis or hypodermis coiled duct leading to sweat pore lined stratified cuboidal epithelium in dermis and keratoinoycytes in epidermis
Most numerous skin glands—3 to 4 million in adult skin
Simple tubular glands
Myoepithelial cells
contract in response to stimulation by sympathetic nervous system and squeeze perspiration up the duct. arousal, nervous, overheating
Found in both apocrine and merocrine glands

199
Q

Basel cell carcinoma

A

Most common type
Least dangerous because it seldom metastasizes
Forms from cells in stratum basale can invade dermis, small shiny bump enlarges to pearly
Lesion is small, shiny bump with central depression and beaded edges

200
Q

darker skinned people

A

same number of melanocytes in everybody. same number of melanocytes between all skin colors.
Produce greater quantities of melanin
Melanin breaks down more slowly
Melanin granules more spread out in keratinocytes
Melanized cells seen throughout the epidermis

201
Q

osteoblast

A

Bone-forming cells. cuboidal or angular lining up as single layer on bone surface under endosteum and periosteum resemble cuboidal epithelium.
Form single layer of cells under endosteum and periosteum
Synthesize soft organic matter of matrix which then hardens by mineral deposition when stress and fractures are noted
Secrete hormone osteocalcin stimulates insulin secretion by pancras increasing insulin sensitivity in adipocytes and limits growth of adipose tissue. nonmitotic synthesize bone matrix hardening mineral depostion. stress increases their being built.

202
Q

smooth

A

organs, viscera no striations like other two one nucleus per cell packed together like smoothed lines over. Most is visceral muscle—making up parts of walls of hollow organs. looks squamous throughout just blurred.

(digestive, respiratory, urinary, blood vessels, and uterus lie perpendicular to function) sheets of tissue in walls of blood vessels, digestive tract, sphyuincter. swallowing contraction control of flow.

203
Q

bone development

A

Ossification or osteogenesis—the formation of bone

cartilage-avascular, blood comes in becomes bone

204
Q

skin cancer

A

most cases caused by UV rays of the sun damaging skin cell DNA: case study

205
Q

mesentery

A

visceral peritoneum at points where forms translucent membranous curtain suspending and anchoring viscera and serosa where enfolds and ocvers outer surface of organs like stomach and small intestines. instestines supended by posterior mesentery, posterior of large intestine- mesocolon. after wrapping to anterior body wall anterior mesentery of greater omentum hangs like aproin from inerolateral margin of stomach and overlies intestine unattached at inferior border lifted to revel intestines.less omentum superomedial margin of stomach to liverd

206
Q

spongy

A

(+cancellous) ends of bone organized inside compact bone along w/ middle of flat, irregular, and shoprt bones. ¼ bne

207
Q

organ systems

A

11 organ systems based on collective function integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, lymphatic, respiratory, urinary, digestive, and reproductive physically interconnected within a system

208
Q

gradients

A

a difference in chemical concentration, charge temperature or pressure between two points. matter ande enrgy tend to flow down gradients high versus low pressure in heart and vessels

209
Q

skin

A

Skin is body’s largest and heaviest organ
1.5 to 2.0 m2
Composes 15% of body weight
Skin thickness ranges from 0.5 to 6 mm

210
Q

What are simple epithelium

A

one line of cells. (pseudostratified – plain simple epithelium if touching bottom but doesn’t look like it)

211
Q

cortex

A

outer edge…bulk of hair containing keratonite cells, bulk of hair, several layers of elongated keratinized cells appear cuboidal to flattened in cross sections

212
Q

two layers of dermis

A

Papillary Layer: (1/5) Superficial zone of dermis, allow for ability of leukocytes and defense cells, blood vessels rich in blood vessels. thin zone of areolar tissue in and near dermal papillae allowing for mobility of leukocytes against organisms rich in blood vessels.
Reticular Layer: (4/5) Deeper and thicker layer of dermis, dense irregular. Boundary between vague, collagen forms thicker bundles w/ less room for ground substance there are often small clusters of adipocytes. stretching tears collagen stretch marks dermal blood vessels damaged cause bruns serious fluid seep out of vessel accumulate blister.

213
Q

metaphysics and epiphyseal plate

A

metaphysis becomes the Epiphyseal plate/metaphyseal—cartilage transitions to bone elongating it
Functions as growth zone where bone elongates two directions length and width
Has typical hyaline cartilage in the middle with transition zones on each side where cartilage is replaced by bone
Metaphysis is zone of transition facing the marrow cavity, hyaline cartilage plate and growth plate interstitial growth from within. apositional growth on bony surface

214
Q

calcitrol

A

Calcitrol
Most active form of vitamin D. keratinocytes in skin use UV to turn into it. liver adds hydroxeal groups to vitamin D liver adds becomes calcidiol then kidney adds another to become calcitriol.
Produced by actions of skin, liver, and kidneys
Calcitriol is a hormone that raises blood calcium level.
Calcitriol is also necessary for bone deposition. weakly promote kidney resorption, necessary for bone depositoin adequate phosphate and alium. inadequate abnormal softenss of bones rickets or osteomalasia.
increases calcium absorption by the small intestine, increases calcium resoprtion from skeleton. binds to osteoblasts triggers differentiation of stem cells to osteoclasts, promotes resoprtion by kidney

215
Q

repair

A

regeneration, fibrosis (scar tissue holds damaged tissue together but doesn’t restore function) no development

216
Q

in human fetus and infant bone develops

A

In the human fetus and infant, bone develops by two methods
Intramembranous ossification
Endochondral ossification

217
Q

epiphysis

A

only fuse when fully grown, expanded head at each end, enlarged to strengthen joint added surface area for attacments of tendons and ligament. will have line of denser bone from child epiphyseal plate.

218
Q

stratum basale

A

stem and keratinocytes, thin layer. single layer of cuboidal to low columnar stem cells and keratinocytes resting on basement membrane, melanocytes, tactile cells, and stem cells. as divide lost to surface

219
Q

function of skeletal system

A

Support (limbs, spiny, viscera), Protection (internal organs), Movement (limb), Electrolyte balance (calcium & phosphate store), Acid–base balance (buffers blood against pH changes absorbing releasing alkaline phosphate and carbonate salts), Blood formation- bone marrow

220
Q

What is the function and types of adipose tissue?

A

o Cushion organs, body contouring, energy storage, insulation and cushioning. White adults, Brown infants
o Two types: white and brown
o Empty-looking cells with thin margins; nucleus pressed against cell membrane
o Energy storage, insulation, cushioning
white fat cells, thin cytsplasm, nucleus edge and chicken wire anchor eyeballs and kidney
brown- shoulder, upper back and kidneys in babies

221
Q

shape of epithelial cells

A

squamous (smooshed), cuboidal (cube), columnar (column) looking at apical surface for stratified and labeled based on last layer of apical surface

222
Q

second-degree

A

down into dermis layer, red, tan, white, marks from it and will develop blisters takes two weeks to several months depending on how widespread w/ scars

223
Q

function of nails?

A

Improve grooming, picking apart food, other manipulations

Provide a counterforce to enhance sensitivity of fleshy fingertips to tiny objects enhancing sensitivity

224
Q

articular cartilage

A

where one bone meets the other w/ lubricant. buffer between bones

225
Q

o pseudostratified epitheliu

A

respiratory tract and portions of male urethra. goblet cells spaces from apical, have microcilli, nucleus multiple locations not in the same place propels mucus

226
Q

mammary glands

A

milk-producing glands that develop only during pregnancy and lactation, Mammary ridges or milk lines. modified apocrine sweat glands

227
Q

hemangiomas

A

birthmarks)- patches of skin discoloration by benign tumors of blood capillaries.capillary hemangiomas-strawberry 1 month red to deep purple elevations disappear 5-6. cavernous hemaniomas flatter and duller present up to 1 year. port-wine flat and pinking to dark purple for life.

228
Q

osseous tissue

A

(osseous tissue)—connective tissue with the matrix hardened by calcium phosphate and other minerals. bone made up of blood, bone marrow, cartilage, adipose tissue, nervous tissue, and fibrous connective tissu. organic or inorgance par

229
Q

bone widening and thickening appositional growth

A

Bone Widening and Thickening Appositional growth—new tissue at surface occurs at bone surface occurs in cartilage as well
Continual growth in diameter and thickness
Intramembranous ossification
Osteoblasts of inner periosteum deposit osteoid tissue.
Lay down matrix in layers parallel to surface. form circumferential laminae
osteoclasts- eat away at it so inner cavity for bone marrow increases w/ space widening and thickening and room for marrow cavity
long bones- intramembranous and endochondral
flat bones- intramembranous alone

230
Q

osteon

A

central canal and surrounding lamellae

231
Q

What are the different planes?

A
  • reference plane sagiital plane-left to right, coronal-front and back, transverse-cut top half of body from lower
  • Comparing things: anterior-front, posterior- behind. superior-higher, inferior- lower, proximal closer to, distal farther away, medial in the central and midline, lateral left and right farther away from midline,
232
Q

neuron parts

A

• In nerve cells: changes in voltage result in rapid transmission of signals to other cells
• Nervous tissue—specialized for communication by electrical and chemical signals
• Consists of neurons (nerve cells)
• Neuroglia (glial)- protect and assist neurons
• Neuron parts
o Neurosoma (cell body)
o Dendrites
o Axon (nerve fiber)

233
Q

exposure to uV light

A

Exposure to UV light stimulates melanin secretion and darkens skin

234
Q

Skeletal system

A

composed of bones, cartilages, and ligaments

Continually remodels itself and interacts with other organ systems of the body

235
Q

serous glands

A

• Produce thin, watery secretions, perspiration, milk, tears, digestive juices

236
Q

calcitonin

A

Calcitonin—secreted by C cells (clear cells) of thyroid gland when blood calcium levels rise too high. released when blood calcium too high, inhibits clasts bone resorption or increases osteblasts to increases bone deposition.
Lowers blood calcium concentration in two ways:
Important in children, weak effect in adults
May inhibit bone loss in pregnant and lactating women

237
Q

ground substance

A

empty space, gelatinous rubbery from glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans and adhesive glycoproteins absorbes compressive force and more delicate cell protecting

238
Q

ABCD

A

( A asymmetry) B (border irregularity wavy scalloped) C (color mixture of brown, black, tan and red or blue) D (diameter)

239
Q

connective tissue wrapping muscle

A

endomesium, perimysium, and epimesium

240
Q

endomesium

A

thin sleeve of loose connective tissue surrounding each muscle fiber. blood capillaries, nerves, chemical environment and nerve ending. calcium, sodium, and potassium between this’s fluid nerve and muscle fibers

241
Q

perimysium

A

thicker connective tissue sheath wraps muscle fibers in fascicles. parallel strands. larger nerves and blood vessels, and stretch receptors (muscle spindles)

242
Q

epimesium

A

fibrous sheath surrounding entire muscle. grades into fascia on outer, inner between fasciles to permysium

243
Q

fascia

A

sheet of connective tissue seperating neighboring muscles or groups from eachother and subcutaneous tissue
package groups of functionally related muscle compartments including nerves and blood.

244
Q

fascicles

A

defined by perimysium

245
Q

muscle attatchments?

A

Indirect attachment to bone- limbs and body work in most functional way. ligaments and tendons used to connect strong structural continuitity from muscle to bone.
Direct (fleshy) attachment to bone: muscle wider insertion point spanned by collagen fibers

246
Q

origins and insertions

A

Origin- attachment of stationary end
Belly
Insertion- attachment of moving end

247
Q

Intrinsic muscle

A

any muscle entirely contained within a region, such as the hand (within deep)

248
Q

Extrinsic muscle

A

acts on a designated region, but has its origin elsewhere (superficial)q

249
Q

prime mover

A

(agonist)- muscle that produces most of force during particular joint action, flexing elbow, prime mover is brachialis

250
Q

synergist

A

(helping prime mover). biceps brachii overlie brachialis and works to flex elbow. may stabilize joint restricting unwanted movemnt or modify direction to more coordinated and specific

251
Q

Antagonist

A

(opposite of it biceps and triceps)- opposes prime mover. relaxes to give prime mover more control or maintains tension on joint limiting speed or range of prime mover, preventing excessive movement, joint injury, or inappropriate actions. extend arm w/ triceps. brachialis slow extension to appropriate point.

252
Q

Fixator

A

(keep everything steady), prevents bone from moving. fix a bone holds it steady allowing another muscle attached to pull on something else. flexion of elbow by biceps brachii. biceps originates on scapula, crosses both shoulder and elbow joints, inserts on radius and forearm fascia. scapula loosely attached to axial. so when biceps contractor fixator muscles contract at same time holding scapula in place moves radius instead.

253
Q

Cranial nerves for bones

A

arise from the base of the brain
Emerge through skull foramina
Innervate the muscles of the head and neck
Numbered CN I to CN XII

254
Q

universal characteristics of muscle

A

Excitability (responsiveness to chemical signals, stretch and electrical charges across membranes)
Conductivity- susceptible to local excitation that travels along fibers leading to contraction.
Contractility- shorten substantially when stimulated
Extensibility- stretch between contractions 3X length
Elasticity- return to original shape

255
Q

collagens significance to musclein muscle

A

w/in tendon muscle part insert into bone and become part of bone. extensible and elastic, stretch slightly under tension, release and coil, allow to go back, output of power nad muscle effeciency. neither contrile, extensible and elastic recoil helps return to oriiginal length. resist excessive stretcher protecting from injury which are continuos w/ collagen in tendons

256
Q

sarcolemma

A

plasma membrane of muscle fiber multiple nuclei inside

257
Q

•Sarcoplasm and what is commonly found in it

A
  • cytoplasm of muscle fiber
    Myofibrils- long protein cords throughout sarcoplasm bundle of parallel protein microfilaments myofilaments- circle dots w/in myofibril. thick and thin
    Glycogen- carb stored for energy
    Myoglobin- oxygen for muscle activity
258
Q

Myoblasts

A
  • stem cells fuse to form muscle fibers in development why multiple nuclei
259
Q

Satellite cells

A

-unspecialized myoblasts between muscle fiber and endomesium

260
Q

Mitochondria

A
  • packed in space between myofibrils.
261
Q

Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)-

A

smooth network around each myfibril where Ca2+ is stored and bound

262
Q

Terminal cisternae

A
  • calcium reservoirs release to allow contraction dilated end-sacs cross muscle fiber side to other.
263
Q

T tubules

A
  • infolding of sarcolemma. t tubyle penetrate through cell and emerge on other side. closely associated w/ two cisterns alongside it.
264
Q

thick filaments

A

made of several hundred myosin molecules.each molecule shaped like golf club. chains intertwined for tail and double glob like head directed outward in helical array around bundle angle to left and right. bare area w/ no heads (purple_

265
Q

thin filaments

A

Fibrous (F) actin two intertwined actin, Tropomyosin molecules block active sites of 6-7 G-actin, which binds myosin molecule, preventing myosin binding. Caclium binding protein, Troponin molecule, on tropomyosin molecule. (reddish pink). binds head of myosin molecules

266
Q

contractile proteins

A

myosin and actin do the work of contraction

267
Q

regulatory proteins

A

tropomyosin and troponin switch and determine when fiber can and cannot contract. Calcium released into sarcoplasm binds to troponin, which is bound to tropomyosin, tropomyosin blocks active sites of actin so myosin cannot bind to actin when muscle not stimulated.

268
Q

dystropin

A

enormous located between sarcolemma
Links actin in outermost myofilaments to membrane proteins that link to endomysium
Thin filaments move pull on dystrophin pull on extracellular connective tissues leading to tendon. Transfers forces of muscle contraction to connective tissue ultimately leading to tendon

269
Q

Titin:

A

huge, springy protein elastic
Run through core of thick filament and anchor it to Z disc (zigzag) and M line (middle line).
Help stabilize and position the thick filament. prevents overstretched and provides recoil

270
Q

striations

A

result of organization of myosin and actin in skeletal and cardiac. alternate. dark and light A and I. darkest where thick filaments overlap array of thin filaments.
A band: dark; “A”stands for anisotropic. thick filaments side by side
H band: not as dark; middle of A band; thick filaments only.
M line: middle of H band no thin filaments thick filaments linked
I band: light;“I”stands for isotropic. reflect polarized light
Z disc: provides anchorage for thin filaments and elastic filaments. zig-zag. Z disc to Z disc is the sarcomere[ functional contractile unit of muscle fiber. shorten because individual sarcaomeres become more overlapped and shorten. length of individual filaments dont change just overlap Z disc regions shortened pull on sarcolemma
dystropinin and linking proteins extracellular proteins to contract w/ the extracellular helping

271
Q

A band

A

A band: dark; “A”stands for anisotropic. thick filaments side by side
H band: not as dark; middle of A band; thick filaments only.

272
Q

H band

A

H band: not as dark; middle of A band; thick filaments only.

273
Q

M Line

A

M line: middle of H band no thin filaments thick filaments linked

274
Q

Z disc

A

Z disc: provides anchorage for thin filaments and elastic filaments. zig-zag. Z disc to Z disc is the sarcomere[ functional contractile unit of muscle fiber. shorten because individual sarcaomeres become more overlapped and shorten. length of individual filaments dont change just overlap Z disc regions shortened pull on sarcolemma

275
Q

I band

A

I band: light;“I”stands for isotropic. reflect polarized light

276
Q

motor unit and how it works

A

200 muscle fibers each motor neuron. fine control means smaller motor units w/ sensitive motor neurons and vice versa. Motor unit—one nerve fiber and all the muscle fibers innervated by it. somatic motor neuron. each indivdiual muscle has a nerve in individual nerve fibers. axon w/ multiple branch to each of finber. muscle fiber only one motor unit. contract in unison, leaky contractiona and ability to keep long turn contract if the motor units takes turns. several motor units at once for stronger contraction. muscle fibers and neurons excitable cytoplasm changes based on electricity. voltage electrical potential difference along cytoplasm maintain by sodium potassium pump

277
Q

how does muscle fatigue and contraction work w/ motor units

A

muscles fatigue w/ continual stimulation motor units take over while fatigued ones recover sustaining long-term ocntraction

contracting as one not clustered together but dispersed throughout muscle weak contraction over wide area.

278
Q

nerve fiber excitation

A

when acetylcholine binds to receptor ion channels in plasma membrane open NA+ flows into negatively charged interior becoming positive, w/ K+ opening and leaving bringing positive charge back to negative transferring down cell while this occurs.

279
Q

muscle fiber excitation

A

excitation- action potentials in nerve lead to action potentials in muscle fiber. nerve signal at axon terminal opening Ca2+ ions. Calcium stimulates synapse to release acetylcholine into synapse diffusing across and binding to receptors on sarcolemma. When opens Na+ flows in less negative and K+ flows out brings back to negative w/ delay. sarcolemma next to end plate open in response exciting muscle fiber

280
Q

excitation-contraction

A

motor end action potential sreads like ripples when reaches T tubules down them into cell interior. Open voltage gated ion channels in t tubules linked to calcium channels in terminal cisterns of SR. channels in SR open also calcium diffuses out of SR, binding to troponin in thin filaments. troponin-tropomyosin changes shape exposing active actin filaments.

281
Q

contraction

A

dsliding filament theory myofilaments dont change thin slide over thick sarcomere as whole to shorten. myosin head w/ ATP in order to contract Myosin ATPase to ADP binding exposed head to active site on thin filament forming cross-bridge. myosin releases ADP tugging thin filament. binding of new ATp to myosin breaks activating to site farther down. half heads bound at time

(need to know steps not specific). excitation nerve action potentials to muscle action potential. excitation, excitation contraction, excitation contraction coupling (action potential on sarcollemma on myofilaments and allow them to contract). contraction (muscle develops tension and shorten) relaxation (stimulus ends returning to original resting stage).

282
Q

relaxation

A

nnerve signals stop at neuromuscular junction stop release acetylcholine which is broken down during and after stimulation. excitation through contraction SR releases and reabsorbs Ca2_ but when stops firing and excitation ceases Ca2+ release ceases and only reabsorption continues. tropomyosin moves back

283
Q

length tension relationship,

A

amount of muscle retained by msucle depending upon how stretched and shortened depending upon beginning of stimulation. so if already shortened weak contraction, or if overly stretched weak not a lot of contact to stretch not crossing enough. optimum resting length where greates force in middle. nervous system creates muscle tone- makes sure muscles near optimum resting length elastic filaments help maintain myofrigor mortis- deterioriating parts of muscle fibers sarcoplasmic reticulum release calcium and deteriorate activation of cross-bridges muscles can contract but not release. contracted till myofilaments decay peeks at 12 hours after death. ilament overlap.

284
Q

rigor mortis-

A

deterioriating parts of muscle fibers sarcoplasmic reticulum release calcium and deteriorate activation of cross-bridges muscles can contract but not release. contracted till myofilaments decay peeks at 12 hours after death.

285
Q

Four major phases of contraction and relaxation:

A

threshold

twitch

286
Q

Threshold:

A

At threshold intensity and above—twitch produced. myogram timing and strength of. minimum necessary to create contraction or generate action potential.

287
Q

Twitch-

A

threshold or high single stimulus causes quick cycle of contraction and relaxation. Low frequency stimuli produce identical twitches•Higher frequency stimuli produce temporal (wave) summation. contraction or restation…
–Incomplete tetanus
•Complete (fused) tetanus

288
Q

•Latent period-

A

delay between stimulus and contraction for excitation, excitation-contraction, and tensing of elastic components.. phase components of muscle at optimum length.

289
Q

•Contraction phase

A

external tension overcoming threshold and cause movements. strength of twitches subthreshold no contractin. at threshold and above muscle contracts. even if same voltage w/ different stimuli varying in length. muscles starting length of stress dictate twitch strength. warmer muscle enzymes work more quickly happens faster. variable strength for different task. higher voltage more nerves stimulating more to contract w/ multiple motor units for stronger contractions. twitch dependent on how stretched before, muscle fatigue, hydration, stimulus frequency closer together stronger twitches up to a point as long as relaxation period and vice versa. riase voltage stronger twiches exciting more and more nerve fibers. smaller less powerful motor units smaller slower nerve fibers activiated first for refined movements more power larger and faster activated.

290
Q

Relaxation

A
  • longer than contraction back to baseline.
291
Q

isometric:

A

muscle develops internal tension but does not shorten. muscles contracting at cellular level tension absorbed by elastic components and resisted by weight of load muscle not producing external movment. At the beginning of contraction—isometric phase. important for stability at rest. •When tension overcomes resistance of the load.

292
Q

isotonic contraction:

A

muscle lengthens while maintaining tension. concentric contraction lifting weights. ecentric- slowly lowering weight. internal tension builds to overcome resistance muscle shortens moves load and maintains same tension from then on.

293
Q

concentric contraction-

A

muscle shortens as maintains tension, biceps contract and flexes elbow

294
Q

eccecntric contraction-

A

muscles lengthen as maintains tension, set dumbell down biceps length as extend elbow maintining tension to act as brain and keep you from dropping

295
Q

All muscle contraction depends on ATP:

A

ATP supply depends on availability of: availability of oxygen, glucose and fatty acids.

296
Q

anaerobic

A

(short, intense exercise ex. 100m dash). enabling cells to produce ATP w/out oxygen. oxygen briefly supplied by myoglobin but rapidly depleted meet most ATP demands by borrowing P, myocase and protein kinase phosphophagen system provides energy for short term.
As the phosphagen system is exhausted, muscles shift to anaerobic fermentation. 30 second glycogen lactic-acid system by the end aerobic respiration supported by cardiopulmonary function w/ repay oxygen debt. muscles obtain via glycogen and myoglobin. ATP/glucose to lactate
Glycogen–lactic acid system—the pathway from glycogen to lactic acid get rid of by liver. produces enough ATP for 30-40 seconds of maximum energy at which point cardivascular and respiratory system catch up

297
Q

aerobic

A

Aerobic - •produces more ATP per glucose than glycolysis does (another 30 ATP per glucose). requires consisten oxygen. 0-8 seconds oxygen from myoglobin, phosphagen system. switch to anaerobic. long term energy for aerobic demands. met for because of system 3-4 minutes keeps pace w/ depends 30 is glucose and fatty acids. after 30 minutes uses fatty acids instead.

298
Q

fatigue in high intensity workouts

A

intensity exerciseis thought to result from: muscle fatigue, progressive weakness from long term use of muscle. phosphate accumulation in t tubules and cause less excitability. ATP inhibits myofibrils full depletion stopping cross bridges and inability to move. ADP inhibiting calcium release, calcium sensitive force production of myofibrils

299
Q

fatigue in low intensity workouts

A

Fatigue in low-intensity (long duration) exerciseis thought to result from: loss of ATP sources and blood glucose levels, electrolyte loss reducing muscle excitability, central fatigue, less motor signals from brain inhitted by ammonia.

300
Q

Maximum oxygen uptake

A

(VO2max) is major determinant of one’s ability to maintain high-intensity exercise for more than 4 to 5 minutes. rate of oxygen consumption reaches plateau and increases no further w/ added workload. doesnt increase further w/ added workload peaks around 20 and males. 2X in trained versus untrained.

301
Q

Excess Postexcercise oxygen consumption (EPOC)-

A

It is the difference between the elevated rate of oxygen consumption following exercise and the usual resting rate. needed for aerobically replenishing ATP oxygen reserves on ATP, oxygen to liver for lactate breakdown, body temperature and metabolic rate oxygen to cells w/ higher rates, lactate to liver. It is the difference between the elevated rate of oxygen consumption following exercise and the usual resting rate. 6X ATP prodction as much exertion w/out it

302
Q

Slow-twitch

A

red slow oxidative (SO), type I fibers well adapted for endurance by ATP production and fatigue resistance, support body and maintain posture. abundant capillaries, mitochondria, myoglobin, thin less diffusion, myosin sarcoplasmic reitculum releases Ca slowly. precise movements. smaller motor units go to larger only if have to

Genetically predisposed for one or the other.

303
Q

Fast versus slow-

A

twitch fibers can predominate in certain muscle groups. Fast-twitch, fast glycolytic (FG), larger motor units white, or typeII fibers. muscle of back contract quickly, well adapted for quick responses, biceps bracchi. mysoin w/ fast ATPase release hydrolysis and cross-birdge cycling, sarcoplasmic reticulum w/ fast release, glycolysis, anaerobic produce ATP more quickly. high [] glycogen and creatine phosphate, regenerate ATp. few mitochondria, thicker and stronger, lack myoglobin, large motor unit, fatigue easily, less excitable neurons for more powerful movements. fast twitch intermediate and type II rare in other animals.

304
Q

Muscular strength depends on:

A

Muscle sizeL thicker muscles more cross birdges, higher tensions cross areas, parallel stronger than circular. longer stronger, more units and increase tension of muscle. muscle at optimal length better.
–Fascicle arrangement- pennate are stronger than parallel stronger than circular
–Size of active motor units large produce more stronger strongers
–Multiple motor unit summation - more and more larger motor units
–Temporal summation- greater frequency more strong muscle relax,
Length–tension relationship- resting at optimum length prepared to contract more forceuflly
Fatigue- more weekly than resting muscles

305
Q

Resistance training-

A

•contraction of muscle compared to load vs. muscle. growth from cellular enlargement not filaments. weight lifitng contracting muscles against load that resists movements from cellular enlargement not division. more myofilaments and myofibrils grow thicker myofibrils split long when size.
A few minutes of resistance exercise a few times a week is enough to stimulate muscle growth
Muscle fibers synthesize more myofilamentsand myofibrils and grow thicker because more filaments.

306
Q

•Endurance training

A

Improves fatigue-resistant muscles enhancing delivery and use of oxygen.
Slow twitch fibers produce more mitochondria, glycogen, and acquire a greater density of blood capillaries. increases and enhances functio of cardiovascular, musclar and repirationry sytomps, increase RBC count.

307
Q

Cardiac and smooth muscle share certain properties

A

Their cells are myocytes. involuntary. weird branched parts w/ chunks of white less organized. once damaged can be repaired by fibrosis doesnt get replaced. no innervation from somatic neurons from sympathetic and parasymtpathetic divisions
They receive innervation from the autonomic nervous system

308
Q

Properties of cardiac muscle-

A

striated but shorter and thicker, one or two nuclei near middle enclosed in endomysium no perimysium or epimysium branch slighly end to end w/ others forming intercalated discs
Contracts with regular rhythm. w/out need for nervous stimulation. built in pacemaker for electrical excitation, triggers everything in sequence. independently.
Works in sleep or wakefulness, without fail, and without conscious attention
Highly resistant to fatigue
Muscle cells of a given chamber must contract in unison
Contractions in unison must last long enough to expel blood
Autonomic nervous system can increase or decrease heart rate and contraction strength pacemaker autorhymthmic independent autonomic can increase or decrease rate aerobic.
Very slow twitches; does not exhibit quick twitches like skeletal muscle
Uses aerobic respiration almost exclusively

309
Q

smooth muscle

A

•Lack of striations
Smooth muscle is slower than skeletal and cardiac muscle. lack nerve supply some autonomic nerve fibers. synaptic vessels. takes longer to contract but can contract longer w/out fatigue. can fix better. pressure, flow blood and fine control in certain locations. of skin GI tract.
dilate or constrict blood vessels and airway modify air and blood flow maintianing pressure and reroute blood. hair follicles and perpendicular and parallel bands push food. hypertrophy and hyperplasia (cell growth and divison)
Smooth muscle forms layers within walls of hollow organs stomach, intestines, uterus, bladder
Can provide fine control in some locations but strong in others (uterus)

310
Q

types of smooth muscle

A

Multiunit smooth muscle
Occurs in some of the largest arteries and air passages, in piloerectormuscles, and in iris of the eye
Autonomic innervation forms motor units terminal branches of nerve fiber synapsed w/ myofibril. contracts independent of others. contracts to electrical changes in sarcollema even in absecence of electrical excitation

311
Q

Single-unit smooth muscle.

A

fusiform shape tapering to point, enclosed in endomysium no perimysium, fascicles, or epimysium, one nucleus dense bodies allow for transmission from cell to cell actin and intermediate filaments attach
More common. blood vessels, urinary, repiratory, digest, and reproductive tracts. numerous cells contract as unit. two different layers inner circular layer w/ outer longitudinal layer.
Myocytes of this cell type are electrically coupled to each other by gap junctions

312
Q

what causes smooth muscles to contract and get excited?

A

Smooth muscle is involuntary and can contract (or relax) in response to a variety of stimuli. Autonomic activity, cetalcholine (gastrointestinal motility), (norepinepherine) dilate bronchiales of lungs. CO2 and O2, pH oxytocin uterine contractions. temperature can effect for skin and erector muscles. stretch w/ food in belly, autorhythmicity- spontaneously depolarize at regular time intervals setting off waves of contraction throughout entire layer of muscle. Contraction is always triggered by Ca2+, energized by ATP, and achieved by sliding filaments. Smooth muscle gets most Ca2+from ECF. thick filament pulls on thin ones then pull on dense bodies and membrane plaques force to plasma membrane entire cell shortens

313
Q

what happens in stretch of smooth muscle

A

Stretch can open mechanically gated calcium channels in the sarcolemma causing contraction. When stretched, tissue briefly contracts then relaxes; helps prevent emptying while filling. peristalsis waves of contract food goes down esophagus thorugh intestines.
Response to Stretch:
Skeletal muscle cannot contract forcefully if overstretched
Smooth muscle contracts forcefully even when greatly stretched allow to fill and excel
Plasticity—the ability to adjust its tension to the degree of stretch
Smooth muscle can be anywhere from half to twice its resting length and still contract powerfully
Stress–relaxation response (receptive relaxation)—helps hollow organs gradually fill (urinary bladder). when stretched briefly contracts and relaxes to allow emptying.
three reasons: no Z discs in sarcomeres, thick filaments can’ butt and stop contraction, not arranged in sarcomeres can’t overlap, myosin heads along length and can form anywhere. plasticity- ability to adjust tension to degree of strech

A&P I 1st half (9 decks)

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