Lecture Exam #2 Flashcards
Lecture #7-11
1
Q
metabolism definition
A
all chemical reactions in an organism
2
Q
how can chemical reactions be classified
A
catabolic
anabolic
3
Q
catabolism definition
A
breaking down compounds
4
Q
catabolic reactions release/require energy overall
A
release
5
Q
what is the most common catabolic reaction
A
hydrolysis reactions
6
Q
function of catabolic reactions
A
provide building blocks and energy for anabolic reactions
7
Q
anabolism definition
A
building compounds
8
Q
anabolic reactions release/require energy overall
A
require
9
Q
catabolic reactions are exergonic/endergonic
A
exergonic
10
Q
anabolic reactions are exergonic/endergonic
A
endergonic
11
Q
what is the most common anabolic reactions
A
condensation reactions
12
Q
function of anabolic reactions
A
generates matherials for cell growth
13
Q
adenosine triphosphate definition
A
principal energy-carrying molecule
14
Q
ATP’s role in catabolic reactions
A
energy that is released in catabolic reactions is stored in ATP
15
Q
ATP’s role in anabolic reactions
A
energy that is required in anabolic reactions comes from ATP
16
Q
structure of an ATP
A
adenosine
3 phosphate groups
17
Q
adenosine composition
A
adenine
ribose
18
Q
how is ATP molecule formed
A
Adenosine diphosphate is phosphorylated
19
Q
phosphorylate definition
A
add a phosphate
20
Q
where is the energy stored in an ATP molecule
A
in the newly formed phosphate bond
21
Q
how to obtain energy from ATP
A
ATP is hydrolyzed and energy-storing phosphate bond is broken
22
Q
What are catabolic reactions coupled with
A
ATP synthesis
23
Q
What are anabolic reactions coupled with
A
ATP hydrolysis
24
Q
activation energy definition
A
energy required for a chemical reaction to occur
25
reaction rate definition
speed at which chemical reaciton occurs
26
substrate definition
starting material (reactants)
27
catalyst definition
substance that speeds up chemical reaction
28
are catalysts altered by reaction
no
29
enzyme definition
biological catalyst
30
what type of macromolecule are enzymes
proteins
31
function of enzymes
convert a substrate -> product
32
are enzymes broad or specific? why?
specific - usually only recognize one substance
33
active site definition
part of enzyme that reacts with substrate
34
what gives an enzyme its specificity
its active site
35
how do enzymes affect chemical reactions
enzymes speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy
36
enzyme structure
apoenzyme
cofactor
37
apoenzyme definition
protein portion of enzyme
38
how does the apoenzyme get its function
must be activated by cofactor (inactive by itself)
39
cofactor definition
nonprotein component
40
holoenzyme composition
apoenzyme + cofactor
41
where are enzyme synthesized
inside cell (ribosome)
42
endoenzyme definition
function inside cell
43
exoenzyme definition
function outside cell
44
example of an exoenzyme and its function
amylase - breaks down starch into smaller sugars
45
enzyme action sequence of events
1) specific part of a substrate that contacts enzyme's active site
2) enzyme-substrate complex forms
3) substrate is transformed
4) transformed substrate released from enzyme
5) enzyme can react with other substrates
46
what happens when an enzyme's active site is changed
enzyme is no longer functional
47
conditions that influence enzyme activity(4)
temperature
pH
substrate concentration
inhibitors
48
how do colder temps affect molecules
molecules move more slowly
49
how do warmer temps affect molecules
molecules move more quickly
50
how does increasing temp affect reaction rate
increases reaction rate
51
what happens to enzymes after increasing temp too much
enzyme can denature
52
optimal temp definition
temp at which enzyme works best
53
optimal pH definition
pH at which enzyme works best
54
what happens to enzymes after extreme pH changes
enzymes denature
55
what happens after you add more substrates
increased reaction rate
56
saturation definition
all enzymes are bound to substrates
57
what happens after all enzymes are saturated
adding more substrates will not increase reaction rate
58
inhibitors function
combine with enzymes and prevent them from functioning
59
types of inhibitors
competitive inhibitors
noncompetitive inhibitors
60
function of competitive inhibitors
bond to enzyme's active site and substrate cannot bind
61
shape/structure of competitive enzyme
similar shape/structure to substrate
62
how do competitive enzymes bind
reversibly or irreversibly
63
function of noncompetitive inhibitors
bind to enayme's allosteric site and active site's shape changes
64
allosteric site definition
any site other than active site
65
how do noncompetitive enzymes bind
reversibly or irreversibly
66
what does secreting exoenzymes do for a pathogen
makes it more virulant
67
shape/gram rxn of Streptococcus pyogenes
Gram-positive cocci
68
what can Steptococcus pyrogenes cause(4)
- strep throat
- scarlet fever
- rheumatic fever
- necrotizing faciitis
69
strep throat transmission
droplet
70
strep throat signs/symptoms(4)
- fever
- sore throat
- tonsillitis
- enlarged lymph nodes
71
scarlet fever transmission(2)
- droplet
- progress from untreated strep throat
72
what does the pink/red skin rash in scarlet fever come from
Streptococcus pyogenes produces erythrogenic toxin
73
scarlet fever signs/symptoms(3)
- skin rash
- spotted, strawberry-like tongue
- fever
74
rheumatic fever transmisison
autoimmune complication
75
what is the autoimmune complication that occurs in rheumatic fever
mis-directed immune reaction against M protein
76
rheumatic fever signs/symptoms(3)
- arthritis (nodules at joints)
- fever
- possible inflammation of heart
77
necrotizing faciitis alt name
"flesh eating bacteria"
78
nectotizing faciitis transmsision
Streptococcus pyogenes enters through breaks in skin
79
how does necrotizing faciitis spread
Streptococcus pyogenes produces toxins that destroy tissue and spreads rapidly
80
how must you treat necrotizing faciitis
promptly
81
Streptococcus pyogenes pathogenesis
displays M protein
hyaluronic acid capsule
produces endotoxins
82
how does Streptococcus pyogenes displaying an M protein help
- aids in colonization
- antiphagocytic
83
how does Streptococcus pyogenes having a hyaluronic acid capsule help
- helps evade immune system
- resists phagocytosis
84
streptokinase definition
breaks down clots attempting to isolate Streptococcus pyogenes
85
how do steps in a metabolic pathway connect
product of one step is a reactant of the next
86
how do enzymes help with metabolic pathways
each step is catalyzed by an enzyme
87
feedback inhibition definition
stops cell from making more product than it needs
88
how does feedback inhibition work
end product allosterically inhibits early enzyme
89
where does an end product usually allosterically bind
1st enzyme -> shuts down entire pathway
90
what happens to feedback inhibition when end product is low
enzyme's allosteric site becomes unbound -> pathway resumes
91
oxidation definition
loss of electrons
92
reduction definition
gain of electrons
93
how are REDOX rxns coupled
- one molecule is oxidized -> loses electrons
- electrons captured by another cule -> reduced
94
how to track electrons in REDOX rxns
locating the H atom
95
If oxidated or reduced, which would have LESS Hs
oxidated
96
If oxidated or reduced, which would have MORE Hs
reduced
97
electron carriers function
move electrons
98
common electron carriers
NAD
NADP
FAD
99
NAD full name
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
100
NADP full name
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
101
FAD full name
flavin adenine dinucleotide
102
what happens to oxidized electron carriers
can accept electrons -> reduced
103
How is ATP formed
ADP is phosphorylated
ADP + P + Energy => ATP
104
Mechanisms of phosphorylating ADP to ATP
substrate-level phosphorylation
oxidative phosphorylation
photophosphorylation
105
what is substrate-level phosphorylation
phosphate from phosphorylated substrate transferred to ADP -> ATP (+ substrate)
106
what is oxidative phosphorylation
electrons move down chain of electron carriers and energy is released that can be used to phosphorylate ADP -> ATP
107
where does photophosphorylation occur
only in photosynthetic cells
(contain light-trapping pigments)
108
what is photophosphorylation
uses energy from sunlight to convert ADP -> ATP
109
carbohydrate catabolism definition
breaking down carbohydrates -> energy
110
more common carbohydrate source for cells
glucose
111
which 2 processes do microbes use to convert glucose -> energy
cellular respiration
fermentation
112
2 types of cellular respiration
aerobic respiration
anaerobic respiration
113
steps of cellular respiration
1) Glycolysis
2) Krebs cycle
3) Electron Transport Chain
114
Steps of fermentation
1) Glycolysis
2) Fermentation
115
cellular location of glycolysis
cytoplasm
116
does glycolysis require oxygen
no (performed by aerobes and anaerobes)
117
2 basic processes of glycolysis
preperatory stage
energy-conserving stage
118
what happens during the preparatory stage of glycolysis
glucose ->-> 2 Glyceraldehyde
119
how many ATP does the preparatory stage of glycolysis require
requires 2 ATP
120
what happens during the energy-conserving stage of glycolysis
2 G3P ->-> 2 Pyruvic Acid
121
what is generated in the energy-conserving stage of glycolysis per 1 Glucose
2 NADH
4 ATP
122
net yield from glycolysis
2 NADH
2 ATP
2 Pyruvic Acid
123
where will the 2 NADH formed from glycolysis go to
enters ETC
124
where will the 2 ATP formed from glycolysis go to
used as energy
125
where will the 2 Pyruvic Acid formed from glycolysis go to (2)
Krebs cycle (Cellular Resp)
Fermentation
126
krebs cycle definition
series of reactions in which energy stored in acetyl CoA is released step by step
127
cellular location of krebs cycle in eukaryotes
mitochondrial matrix
128
cellular location of krebs cycle in prokaryotes
cytoplasm
129
can pyruvic acid enter krebs cycle directly
no
130
why can't pyruvic acid enter krebs cycle directly
must first be converted into acetyl CoA
131
linking step overall purpose
pyruvic acid -> acetyl CoA
132
linking step steps
1) pyruvic acid decarboxylated -> acetyl (2C)
2) acetyl + CoA => Acetyl CoA + NADH
133
decarboxylated definition
loses C in the form of CO2
134
what is Coenzyme A
carrier molecule
135
how many acetyl CoA are produced per 1 glucose molecule
2
136
krebs cycle in aerobic respiration
acetyl (2C) + Oxaloacetate (4C) => citric acid (6)
Citric acid ->->-> oxaloacetate
137
what is a cyclic pathway
starting compound regenerated at end
138
what types of reactions are involved in the krebs cycle in aerobic respiration
REDOX rxns
decarboxylation rxns
139
difference between krebs cycle in aerobic vs anaerobic resp
shorter in anaerobic respiration
140
net yield from krebs cycle per 1 glucose
4 CO2
6 NADH
2 FADH2
2 ATP
141
where do the 4 CO2 produced in the krebs cycle go
released into atmosphere
142
where do the 6 NADH produced in the krebs cycle go
will enter ETC
143
where do the 2 FADH2 produced in the krebs cycle go
will enter ETC
144
where do the 2 ATP produced in the krebs cycle go
energy
145
process of the ETC
chain of electron carriers pass electrons from one carrier to the next, which release energy as electrons are passed down
146
function of energy released during ETC
used to synthesize ATP via oxidative phosphorylation
147
cellular location of ETC in eukaryotes
inner membrane of mitochondria
148
cellular location of ETC in prokaryotes
plasma membrane
149
sources of electrons in ETC in aerobic resp
NADH
FADH2
150
first electron acceptor in ETC in aerobic resp
flavin mononucleotide
151
final electron acceptor in ETC in aerobic resp
oxygen
152
difference in ETC between aerobic vs anaerobic resp
ETC in anaerobic resp is shorter
153
final electron acceptor in ETC in anaerobic resp
molecule other than oxygen
(Nitrate, Sulfate, etc)
154
chemiosmosis function
generate ATP (~34)
155
how does chemiosmosis occur
some electron carriers in ETC are proton pumps which pump protons across memb, which buildup and provide energy to generate ATP
156
steps of chemiosmosis
1) proton pumps in ECT actively pump
2) proton gradient established
3) protons on side of memb w/ higher conc move thru memb via ATP synthase -> releases energy
157
how much ATP produced by aerobic resp and from where
38 in prok
- 2 from glycolysis
- 2 from krebs cycle
- 34 from ETC
36 in euk
158
does aerobic or anaerobic resp produce more ATP
aerobic resp
159
what 2 products is pyruvic acid fermented into
lactic acid
alcohol
160
how is lactic acid fermented
performed by lactic acid bacteria
161
how is alcohol fermented
performed by bacteria and yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae - brewer's yeast)
162
does fermentation require oxygen
no
163
how much ATP is produced during fermentation
4
- 2 from glycolysis
- 2 from fermentation
164
how do most bacteria reproduce
binary fission
165
binary fission definition
one cell divides -> 2 genetically identical daughter cells
166
process of binary fission
1) bacterial chromosome replicates
2) 2 chromosomes move to opposite poles of cell
3) cell elongates
4) cell pinches off into 2 genetically identical cells
167
generation time definition
time required for population to double
168
how to determine number of cells after X generations
2^gen #
169
function of bacterial growth curve
shows growth over time
170
4 basic phases of bacterial growth
1) lag phase
2) log phase
3) stationery phase
4) death phase
171
what is lag phase of bacterial growth
period of little/no cell division
cells are NOT dormant
172
what is log phase of bacterial growth
period of logarithmic growth
cellular reproduction most active
generation time = fastest
173
what is stationery phase of bacterial growth
growth rate slow
of deaths = # of new cells
pop approaches carrying capacity
174
carrying capacity definition
max population an environment can support
175
what is death/decline phase of bacterial growth
population exceeds carrying capacity
of deaths > # of new cells
176
classes of growth requirements
physical
chemical
177
types of physical growth requirements
temperature
pH
osmotic pressure
178
psychrophiles definition
cold-loving microbes
can grow at 0°C
179
2 classes of psychrophiles
true psychrophiles
psychrotrophs
180
true psychrophiles OGT
15°C
181
where are true psychrophiles found
deep ocean
polar regions
glaciers
182
do true psychrophiles cause problems in food storage
rarely
183
psychrotrophs OGT
20-30°C but can grow at 0°C
184
do psychrotrophs cause problems in food storage
most likely to be encountered in food spoilage
185
mesophiles OGT
20-45°C
186
where are mesophiles found
animals
plants
water
187
OGT for MOST pathogens
37°C
188
thermophiles definition
heat-loving microbes
189
thermophiles OGT
45-80°C
190
thermophiles are found where
hot springs
sunlit soil
191
hyperthermophiles OGT
>=80°C
192
hyperthermophiles are found where
hot springs
deep sea hydrothermal vents
193
Corynebacterium diphtheria shape and gram reaction
gram-positive rod
194
OGT of Corynebacterium diphtheria
~37°C
195
what does Corynebacterium diphtheria cause
diphtheria
196
diphtheria transmission
droplet
197
signs/symptoms of diphtheria
fever
sore throat
pseudomembrane
swollen neck
198
coloring of pseudomembrane caused by diphtheria
white -> gray, green, or black
199
Corynebacterium diphtheria pathogenesis
can colonize nose and throat -> back of throat
produce diphtheria toxin, which prevents protein synthesis and cell death
these dead cells form a thick coating (pseudomembrane)
200
what is pseudomembrane caused by diphtheria composed of
dead cells
Corynebacterium diphtheria
WBCs
fibrin
201
at what pH do most bacteria grow
~7
202
acidophiles pH
below 6
203
neutrophiles pH
6.5-7.5
204
alkaliphiles pH
above 8
205
hypertonic environment
solute conc is higher outside cell -> water leaves cell -> plasmolysis
206
types of halophiles
obligate halophiles
facultative halophiles
207
obligate halophiles
require salt
208
facultative halophiles
don't require salt, but can grow in 2-15% salt
209
hypotonic environment
solute conc is less outside cell -> water enters cell -> cell lysis
210
types of chemical growth requirements
essential nutrients
trace elements
organic growth factor
oxygen
211
types of essential nutrients
carbon
nitrogen
phosphorus
sulfur
212
how are orgs classified based on source of carbon
heterotroph
autotroph
213
heterotroph carbon sources
organic sources -> carbohydrates, proteins, lipids
214
are heterotrophs dependent on other life forms
yes
215
autotroph carbon sources
inorganic sources -> CO2
(can convert CO2 -> organic carbon)
216
are autotrophs dependent on other life forms
no
217
what is essential nutrient nitrogen necessary for
protein synthesis
DNA and RNA synthesis
ATP synthesis
218
main source of nitrogen
nitrogen gas
219
what is essential nutrient phosphorus necessary for
DNA/RNA synthesis
ATP synthesis
synthesis of phospholipids
220
main source of posphorus
phosphate
221
what is essential nutrient sulfur necessary for
synthesis of sulfur-containing amino acids
synthesis of sulfur-containing vitamins
222
sulfur-containing amino acids
methionine
cysteine
223
main sources of sulfur
rocks and sediments
224
what are trace elements
chemical growth requirements that are only required in small amounts
225
examples of trace elements
iron
copper
zinc
226
what are most trace elements used as
cofactors
227
organic growth factor definition
essential organic compounds organism is incapable of making
228
examples of organic growth factor
vitamins
amino acids
229
capnophile definition
CO2-loving
230
Campylobacter jejuni shape and gram-rxn
gram-negative spiral
231
O2 requirements of Campylobacter jejuni
microaerophile
capnophile
232
what does Campylobacter jejuni cause
campylobacteriosis
233
campylobacteriosis transmission
foodborne
234
campylobacteriosis signs/symptoms
diarrhea (often bloody)
fever
abdominal cramps
nausea
vomiting
235
Campylobacter jejuni pathogenesis
invades intestinal epithelial layer
produces toxins to stop cell growth which damages intestinal cells
236
what helps Campylobacter jejuni invade intestinal epithelial layer
flagella and capsule
237
what is oxygen toxicity caused by
O2 reduced inside cells
238
how is O2 reduced inside cells (3)
1) O2 + e- -> O2-
2) O2- + H2O2 -> OH
3) O2- + OH -> 1O2-
239
superoxide anion definition
O2-
toxic
participates in destructive rxns
240
oxygen detoxification
superoxide dismutase (SOD)
catalase (C)
241
how does superoxide dismutase detoxify O2
O2- -SOD-> H2O2 + O2
242
why can't obligate anaerobes tolerate O2
they dont have superoxide dismutase or catalase to detoxify O2
243
how does catalase help detoxify O2
H2O2 -C-> H2O + O2
244
biofilms definition
slimy layer of bacteria adhering to a surface
245
biofilm composition
many bacterial cells
extracellular polymeric substances
246
what is EPS made of
polysaccharides + proteins
247
who secretes EPS
bacterial cells
248
function of EPS
provides biofilm structure
249
where are biofilms common
in nature
250
how can cells commynicate in biofilms
quorum sensing
251
quorum definition
minimum number of members that need to be present for a meeting to start
252
quorum sensing definition
bacterial response to population density
253
general process of quorum sensing
1) QS bacteria produce autoindicators -> released into environment
2) autoindicator level increases -> reaches minimum threshold
3) change in proteins produced
254
processes regulated by quorum sensing
production of EPS for biofilm formation
antibiotic production
motility
255
biofilm formation
1) free-swimming (planktonic) bacteria attach to surface
2) cells in aggregate divide
3) aggregate reaches certain size -> EPS produced
4) mature biofilm
5) parts can disperse -> release planktonic bacteria -> further colonization
256
biofilm advantages
can share nutriends
shelterd from harmful substances
easy to exchange genetic material
257
what harmful substances do biofilms shelter from
Antibiotics
UV
disinfectants
immune system
etc
258
how do biofilms affect human health
- can colonize medical devices
- pathogens in biofilms
- many hospital-acquired infections are linked to biofilms
- bacteria in biofilms are ~1000x more resitant to microbicides
259
how to prevent biofilm formation
- anti-adhesion coating
- antimicrobial coating on surfaces
- lactoferrin
260
examples of antimicrobial coatings on surfaces
antibiotics
heavy metal silver
261
-cide definition
kill
262
-static definition
inhibit
263
decontamination procedures
sterilization
disinfection
antisepsis
264
sterilization deifnition
eliminates all forms of life
265
disinfection definition
eliminates most microbes
266
disinfectant defintion
use on inanimate objects only
267
antisepsis definition
inhibition of microbes on human tissue
268
antiseptic definition
okay to use on living tissue
269
factors that affect antimicrobial activity (5)
- # of microbes
- conc of agent
- length of exposure
- environmental conditions
- susceptibility of microbes
270
most susceptible microbes
vegetative cells
fungi
enveloped viruses
271
less susceptible microbes
Mycobacterium
272
even less susceptible microbes
endospores
273
least susceptible microbes
prions
274
general mechanisms of action (5)
disrupt cell wall
disrupt plasma memb
inhibit nucleic acid synthesis
inhinit protein synthesis
denature proteins
275
physical methods of microbial control (6)
heat
low temperatures
filtration
pressure
osmotic pressure
radiation
276
heat MOA
denatures proteins
277
types of heat
dry heat
moist heat
278
types of dry heat
incineration
hot air oven
279
processes of incineration
direct flaming
incinerator
280
hot air oven parameters
160°C for 2 hours
170°C for 1 hour
281
does the hot air oven achieve sterilization
yes
282
types of moist heat
pasteurization
boiling
autoclaving
tyndallization
283
2 goals of pasteurization
1) reduce overall # of microbes
2) eliminate pathogens
284
types of pasteurization
standard
high-temp-short-time pasteurization
ultra-high-temp pasteurization
285
parameters of standard pasteurization
63°C for 30 mins
286
parameters of high-temp-short-time pasteurization
72°C for 15 secs
287
parameters of ultra-high-temp pasteurization
138°C for 2 secs
288
does pasteurization acheive sterilization
no
289
boiling parameters
100°C for 10 mins
290
what does boiling kill
vegetative cells
fungi
many viruses
291
what doesn't boiling kill
endospores
292
does boiling achieve sterilization
no
293
autoclaving definition
steam sterilization under pressure
294
parameters of autoclaving
121°C at 15psi for 15 mins
295
does autoclaving achieve sterilization
yes
296
what is the preferred method of sterilization in healthcare
autoclaving
297
tyndallization procedure
boil at 100°C for 30 mins -> incubate overnight -> boil at 100°C for 30 mins -> incubate overnight -> boil at 100°C
298
does tyndallization achieve sterilization
yes
299
when is tyndallization necessary to use
when substances can't handle high autoclave pressure
300
what is purpose of low temperatures in microbial control
slows microbial metabolism
301
psychrotrophs grow (slowly/quickly)
slowly
302
Listeria monocytogenes shape and gram-rxn
gram-positive rod
303
Listeria monocytogenes temperature classification
psychrotroph
304
Listeria monocytogenes causes what?
listeriosis
305
listeriosis signs/symptoms
fever and diarrhea
can spread beyond gut -> invasive listeriosis
306
Invasive listeriosis signs/symptoms in non-pregnant individuals
fever
flu-like symptoms
stiff neck
confusion
loss of balance
convulsions
307
invasive listeriosis signs/symptoms in pregnant individuals
fever
flu-like symptoms
can cross placenta -> still birth
308
listeriosis transmission
foodborne
placental transfer
309
Listeria monocytogenes pathogenesis
infects cells of intestinal tract
can spread -> liver + spleen
can cross blood-brain barrier
can cross placenta
310
methods of using low-temperatures for microbial control
fridge -> 4°C
freezing
311
what does time in the fridge cause bacteria to become
bateriostatic
312
what does freezing cause bacteria to become
dormant (doesn't usually kill)
ice crystals can pierce eukaryotic pathogens
313
filtration proces
pass liquid through filter attached to vacuum
- liquid goes through
- solids trapped on filter
314
when is filtration used
on heat-sensitive materials
315
does filtration achieve sterilization
no - viruses and Mycoplasma can pass through
316
high pressure MOA
disrupts plasma memb
317
high pressure processing parameters
15,000 psi
15 mins
318
what type of microbe is resistant to high pressure
endospores
319
does high pressyre achieve steriliation
no
320
what is osmotic pressure less effective against
mold/yeasts
321
types of radiation
ionizing
non-ionizing
322
ionizing radiation wavelength/energy
sort wavelength -> high energy
323
most sensitive target of ionizing radiation
DNA
324
does ionizing radiation achieve sterilization
yes
325
types of ionizing radiation
gamma rays
x-rays
electron beams
326
non-ionizing radiation wavelength/energy
long wavelength -> low energy
327
do non-ioniding radiation achieve sterilization
it can
328
difference between ionizing and non-ionizing radiation
when cell is irritated, it absorbs energy
- ionizing: removes electrons from atoms -> ions
- non-ionizing: does not remove electrons from atoms
329
phenol MOA
disrupts plasma memb
denatures proteins
330
why is phenol rarely used nowadays
irritates skin
bad smell
331
phenolics MOA
disrupts plasma memb
denatures proteins
332
where to use phenolics
surfaces
instruments
333
bisphenols definition
2 phenolics connected by a bridge
334
bisphenols MOA
disrupts plasma memb
denatures protein
335
where bisphenols are used
skin lotion
antimicrobial soaps/products
336
example of bisphenols in skin lotion
hexachlorophene
337
example of bisphenols in antimicrobial soaps/products
triclosan
338
biguanides MOA
disrupt plasma memb
339
biguanides use
skin
340
biguanides example and its function
chlorhexidine -> surgical heand scrub
341
alcohols MOA
disrupts plasma memb
denatures proteins
342
alcohols used on
surfaces
skin
343
common types of alcohol
ethanol
isopropanol (rubbing alcohol)
344
why are alcohols less effective
they evaporate
345
what are alcohols ineffective against
endospores
346
quaternary ammonium compounds contain what
modified ammonium ion
347
quaernary ammonium compound MOA
disrupt plasma memb
denatures proteins
348
quaernary ammonium compound use
active ingredient in antibacterial soaps
349
quaernary ammonium compound examples
benzalkonium chloride
benzethonium chloride
350
halogens are (highly/not) reactive
highly
351
halogens used as disinfectants
iodine
chlorine
352
iodine MOA
inhibits protein synthesis
353
iodine use
skin
water
354
forms of iodine
tincture
iodophor
betadine
355
tincture composition
iodine + alcohol
356
iodophor composition
iodine + organic solubizing agent
357
most common commercial preparation of iodine and its properties
betadine
providone-iodine
iodophor
358
what is chlorine used for
to treat water
359
how does chlorine treat water
reacts with water -> hypochlorous acid (bactericidal)
360
chlorine MOA
disrupts plasma membrane
361
hypochlorites
chlorine-containing inorganic compuonds
362
what happens when hypochlorites react with water
hypochlorous acid
363
hypochlorites MOA
disrupt plasma memb
364
examples of hypochlorites and their common name
calcium hypochlorite (chloride of lime)
sodium hypochlorite (bleach)
365
heavy metals MOA
denature proteins
366
disadvantage of heavy metals
also toxic to eukaryotes because they accumulate in cellls and cause protein denaturation
must use in dilute concentration
367
examples of heavy metals used for microbial control
silver
copper
zinc
368
what is found in anti-dandruff shampoo
zinc pyrithione
369
aldehydes contain what
an aldehyde group
370
aldehydes MOA
denature proteins
371
use of aldehydes
preservative
disinfectant
372
what state is formaldehyde found in
gas
373
what state is formalin found in
liquid
374
what are aldehydes considered after repeated exposure
carcinogenic
375
peroxygens are strong ___ agents
strong oxidizing agents
376
peroxygens MOA
oxidation of cellular components
377
exmples of peroxygens
hydrogen gas
ozone gas
378
chemical food preservation function
to prolong shelf life of food
379
most common chemical food preservation with examples
acids - acetic acid, sorbic acid, citric acid
380
other types of chemical food preservation with exampels
sulfur dioxide - wine, dried fruits
nitrates/nitrites - processed meats
381
types of chemical sterilization
ethylene oxide
chlorine dioxide
382
how does ethylene oxide sterilize
ethylene oxide released into chamber
383
ethylene oxide MOA
inhibits nucleic acid synthesis
384
does ethylene oxide sterilize
yes, but requires long exposure
385
does ethylene oxide sterilization require heat
no
386
advantages of ethylene oxide sterilization
highly penetrating
sterilization at ambient temp
387
chlorine dioxide MOA
disrupts protein synthesis
388
does chlorine dioxide achieve sterilization
yes
389
how to use chlorine dioxide to sterilize
fumigate enclosed buildings to kill bacillus anthracis
390
major sources of antibiotics
Bacillus
Streptomyces
Cephalosporium
Penicillum
391
properties of a good chemotherapeutic agent
limited side effects on host/normal flora
non-allergenic
high efficacy
ease of use
392
major MOA of chemotherapeutic agents (5)
inhibit cell wall synthesis
inhibit nucleic acid synthesis
inhibit protein synthesis
injure plasma membrane
inhibit synthesis of essential metabolites
393
bactoprenol function
transports NAG and NAM across plasma memb
394
transpeptidase function
forms peptide cross-bridges
395
inhibitors of cell wall synthesis
beta-lactams
polypeptide antibiotics
antimycobacterial agents
396
how to identify beta-lactams
contain beta-lactam ring
397
beta-lactams MOA
1) beta-lactam ring binds transpeptidase
2) transpeptidase inactivated
3) peptidoglycan cross-bridges cannot form
4) cell death
398
function of beta-lactamase
hydrolyzes beta-lactam ring -> beta-lactam drug is ineffective -> antibiotic resistance
399
penicillinase function
specifically hydrolyzes beta-lactam ring in penicillins
400
disidvantages of natural penicilins
narrow spectrum (G-pos)
susceptible to beta-lactamase
401
examples of natural penicillins
penicillin G
penicillin V
402
how is penicillin G administered
intramuscular injection
403
how is penicillin V administered
orally
404
semisynthetic penicillin types
penicillinase-resistant penicillins
extended-spectrum penicillins
penicillins + beta-lactamase inhibitors
405
penicillinase-resistant penicillins traits
resistant to beta-lactamase
narrow spectrum against G-pos
406
example of penicillinase-resistant penicillins
methicillin
oxacillin
407
MRSA stands for what
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
408
extended spectrym penicillins traits
broad spectrum
susceptible to beta-lactamase
409
examples of extended-spectrum penicillins
ampicillin
amoxicillin
cerbenicillin
410
examples of penicillin + beta-lactamase inhibitiors
penicillin + potassium clavulanate
augmentin
411
what is potassium clavulanate
beta-lactamase inhibitor
412
augmentin made of
amoxicillin + potassium clavulanate
413
spectrum of cephalosporins
depends on generation
414
spectrum of cephalexin
narrow spectrum (G-pos)
415
spectrum of carbapenems
broad spectrum
416
what are carbapenems reserved for
multidrug-resistant bact
417
example of a carbapenem
meropenem
418
polypeptive antibiotics examples
bacitracin
vancomycin
419
spectrum of bacitracin
narrow (G-pos)
420
application of bacitracin
topical
421
bacitracin MOA
interferes w/ bactoprenol -> cell can't synthesize peptidoglycan -> cell death
422
spectrum of vancomycin
narrow (G-pos)
423
what is vancomycin important in treating
MRSA
424
vancomycin MOA
binds to peptide chains in peptidoglycan that haven't been linked -> blocks transpeptidase -> cell wall can't form
425
antimycobacterial agents target what
Mycobacterium
426
examples of antimycobacterial agents
isoniazid
ethambutol
427
isoniazid function
inhibits synthesis of mycolic acid
428
ethambutol function
inhibits inforporation of mycolic acid into cell wall
429
examples of things that inhibit nucleic acid synthesis
rifamycins
fluoroquinolones
430
function of rifamycins
inhibit synthesis of mRNA
431
spectrum of rifamycins
broad
432
example of rifamycins
rifampin
433
rifampin MOA
inhibits RNA polymerase -> blocks transcription
434
is rifampin effective against Mycobacterium
yes
435
side effects of rifampin
orange-red urine, feces, saliva, sweat
436
spectrum of fluoroquinolones
broad
437
side effects of fluoroquinolones
ruptured tendons
438
example of fluoroquinolones
ciprofloxacin
439
ciprofloxacin MOA
inhibits DNA gyrase -> block DNA replication
440
what ribosomes are present in eukaryotic cells
80S
(70S in mitochondria and chloroplasts)
441
what ribosomes are present in prokaryotic cells
70S
442
inhibitors of protein synthesis
chloramphenicol
macrolides
aminoglycosides
tetracyclines
443
spectrum of chloramphenicol
broad
444
chloramphenical MOA
binds to 50S ribosomal subunit -> inhibits peptidyl transferase -> inhibition of polypeptide chain elongation
445
side effect of chloramphenicol
suppresses bone marrow activity -> affects blood cell formation -> aplastic anemia
446
macrolides MOA
binds to 50S subunit -> blocks polypeptide tunnel
447
examples of macolides and their spectrum
erythromycin: narrow (G-pos)
azithromycin: broad
448
spectrum of aminoglycosides
broad
449
aminoglycosides MOA
bind to 30S subunit -> change shape -> mRNA read incorrectly
450
examples of aminoglycosides
neomycin
gentamicin
451
side effects of aminoglycosides
affect hearing
kidney damage
452
spectrum of tetracyclines
broad
453
tetracyclines MOA
binds to 30S subunit -> blocks charged tRNA from enterin A site
454
examples of tetracyclines
tetracycline
doxycycline
455
side effects of tetracyclines
broad spectrum - affect intestinal normal flora -> GI upsets
teeth discoloration in kids
456
injury plasma membrane is easy/difficult to target
difficult
457
fatty acids in bacterial plasma memb are the same/different to those in hyman plasma memb
different
458
examples of ways the injure plasma memb
daptomycin
polymyxins
459
spectrum of daptomycin
narrow (G-pos)
460
daptomycin MOA
1) daptomycin inserted into plasma memb
2) plasma memb shape altered
3) ions leak out of cell -> death
461
spectrum of polymyxins
narrow (G-pos)
462
polymyxins MOA
1) binds to LPS in outer memb -> destabilizes
2) binds and disrupts plasma memb
3) cellular leakage -> death
463
examples of polymyxins
polymyxin B
polymyxin E (colistin)
464
polymyxin B application
topical (non-prescription)
465
polymyxin E use
reserved for multidrug-resistant bacteria
466
what is used to inhibit synthesis of essential metabolites
sulfa drug
467
what are sulfa drugs structurally similar to
PABA (a folic acid precursor)
468
sulfa drugs MOA
bind to enzyme that converts PABA ->-> folic acid
469
example of sulfa drug and its spectrum
Sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim (broad)
470
helicase function
separates DNA strands from one to another
471
gyrase function
relaxes DNA supercoiling
472
charged tRNA is composed of what
tRNA carrying an amino acid
473
3 sites on ribosome
A site
P site
E site
474
A site on ribosome
charged tRNA first enters
475
P site on ribosome
peptide bonds form between amino acids via peptidyl transferase
polypeptide tunnel holds growing chain of amino acids
476
E site on ribosome
tRNA (- amin oacids) exits ribosome
477
spectrum of nitrofurantoin
broad
478
nitrofurantoin MOA
1) nitrofurantoin reduced -> reactive intermediates
2) reactive intermediates attack ribosomel proteins, DNA, respiration, other macromolecules
479
broth dilution test procedure
series of tubes containing increasing conc of drug
1) inoculate org into all tubes
2) incubate
3) observe tubes for turbidity
