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Comparative > Lecture Exam 2 > Flashcards

Lecture Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

what are the functions of ribs in amniotes?

A

support trunk muscles and lung ventilation

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2
Q

what do ribs articulate with?

A

transverse process

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3
Q

what is different about chondrichthyes ribs?

A

1 set of ribs
go from vertebrae to horizontal septum

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4
Q

what do chondrichthyes vertebrates do?

A

support epaxial muscles
and trunk muscles below the horizontal septum (hypaxial muscles)

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5
Q

what is special about seahorses?

A

NO RIBS

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6
Q

what are the ribs like in bony fishes?

A

connect vertebrae to myosepta of ventral body wall
support hypaxial muscles

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7
Q

what is special about
~some~ actinopterygii?

A

have 2 sets of ribs, ventral and dorsal
most only have ventral

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8
Q

what are the ribs in tetrapods?

A

1 set
bicipetal ribs

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9
Q

what are bicipetal ribs?

A

2 heads
tuberculum (transverse process) and capitulum (centrum)

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10
Q

what are amphib ribs like?

A

short
fused to transverse process

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11
Q

how are ribs laid out in amniotes?

A

2 parts: costal and sternal

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12
Q

what is the difference between the costal and sternal parts of amniote ribs?

A

costal is next to the vertebrae
sternal is ventral and attached to sternum

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13
Q

What is it called when sternal ribs are cartilaginous?

A

costal cartilage

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14
Q

what is the structure of ribs in birds?

A

bony sternal ribs
costal ribs have uncinate process (rearward projection of bone)

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15
Q

what is the function of bird ribs?

A

brace the trunk

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16
Q

what groups have sterna?

A

only tetrapods
lacking in fish

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17
Q

what is sterna made of and what is its function?

A

endochondral bone
support pectoral girdle and ribs

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18
Q

describe the structure of different groups sterna

A

amphibs: absent or poorly developed
salamanders: weak, only 1 bone
frogs/toads: more developed/stronger, 4 bones

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19
Q

why do frogs/toads have a more developed sterna?

A

land on forelimbs and need to absorb the impact

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20
Q

what does the sterna look like/do in amniotes?

A

it is well developed
allows for increased use of forelimbs in locomotion

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21
Q

what group lacks sterna?

A

snakesssss

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22
Q

what does the sterna look like in birds?

A

keeled sternum
very deep

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23
Q

why do birds have such specialized sterna?

A

for flight muscle attachment

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24
Q

describe the 3 birds and sterna types discussed in class?

A

roughed grouse (state bird): strong sterna
ostrich: flat sterna
penguins: keeled sterna

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25
Q

what are the parts of the cranial skeleton?

A

neurocranium
dermatocranium

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26
Q

what is the neurocranium?

A

brain case

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27
Q

what is the dermatocranium?

A

dorsal roof made of dermal bone

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28
Q

what are the parts of the visceral skeleton?

A

jaws
branchial arches

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29
Q

what is the other name for visceral skeleton?

A

splanchnocranium

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30
Q

what is the origin of the neuro and splanchnocranium?

A

originate as cartilage and are replaced by endochondral bone

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31
Q

what does the neurocranium in cyclostomes look like?

A

basal plate and sensory capsules
lacks a “roof” covering
remains cartilage

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32
Q

what does the neurocranium look like in chondrichthyes?

A

cartilage (chondrocranium)
has occipital condyles that articulate cranium with vertebral column

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33
Q

what are the ossification centers of the neurocranium?

A

occipital
sphenoid
ethmoid
otic
*no dorsal replacement bone

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34
Q

what is occipital ossification?

A

bones around the foramen magnum ossify

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35
Q

how does occipital ossification work in mammals? in bats?

A

mammals: fuse into occipital bone
in cats: basioccipital remains separate

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36
Q

what is sphenoid ossification?

A

under midbrain, presphenoid and basisphenoid ossify

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37
Q

which “sphenoid” does not come from the sphenoid ossification center?

A

alisphenoid
comes from palatoquadrate

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38
Q

what happens to the presphenoid and basisphenoid in some mammals?

A

fuses into a single bone called the sphenoid

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39
Q

what is ethmoid ossification?

A

it is cartilaginous in tetrapods
ossifies everything but the terbinals

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40
Q

what are terbinals?

A

highly coiled bone in the nasal cavity with a moist epithelial surface

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41
Q

what animals have terbinals and what do they do?

A

sauropsids and mammals
play a role in olfaction (olfactory terbinals) and conserving heat and H2O

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42
Q

what is otic ossification?

A

involves several bones and lots of fusion (especially in birds/mammals)

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43
Q

which bones fuse in otic ossification?

A

otic bones fuse into the petrosal
petrosal and squamosal fuse into the temporal bone

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44
Q

what are the roofing bones in the basic dermatiocranium?

A

series of many paired bones in the middorsal area (frontals and nasals), around the orbit (jugals) and at the posterior angle of the skull (temporal)

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45
Q

what are the jaw bones in the basic dermatocranium?

A

the toothbearing bones: premaxilla and maxilla

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46
Q

what are the parts of the primary palate in the basic dermatocranium?

A

single parasphenoid
several paired bones (palatine)
covered by secondary palate in later tetrapods

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47
Q

what are the opercular bones?

A

make up operculum
cover gills

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48
Q

what is the function of the operculum?

A

protection and ventilation of gills (pumps water through)

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49
Q

what are the parts of the opercular bones and which group lacks them

A

absent in tetrapods
opercular bone, pre-, sub-, inter-operculars

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50
Q

what does the neurodermatocranium complex look like in bony fish?

A

laterally compressed
fully ossified neurocranium (except olfactory capsule)

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51
Q

what is the benefit of the laterally compressed neurodermatocranium complex in bony fish?

A

allows for streamlined shape to move through water

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52
Q

what does the neurodermatocranium complex look like in amphibs

A

dorsoventrally flattened

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53
Q

what are the neurocranial features of the neurodermatocranium complex of amphibs?

A

some cartilage

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54
Q

what are the dermatocranial features of the neurodermatocranium complex in amphibs

A

bones of orbit and temporal region lost
otic capsule exposed
large palatal fenestra

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55
Q

why is the amphib neurodermatocranium complex so weird?

A

because frogs/toads can retract their eyeballs into the oral cavity to help them swallow prey

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56
Q

what does the neurodermatocranium complex look like in amniotes?

A

major developments of the temporal fenestra and a secondary palate (in some)

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57
Q

whats special about turtles

A

they have a loss of dermal bone at the posterior which serves the same function as temporal fenestra (which turtles lack)

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58
Q

what is the loss of dermal bone at the posterior of the neurodermatocranium complex of turtles called?

A

emarginated posterior

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59
Q

what is the function of temporal fenestra?

A

increases surface area of skull for jaw muscles/attachment, space for bigger jaw muscles, allows reorientation of jaw muscles to improve jaw mechanics

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60
Q

what does a synapsid neurodermatocranium complex look like?

A

lateral temporal fenestra with a low border (zygomatic arch)
made up of 2 bones: jugal (zygomatic) and squamosal (temporal)

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61
Q

what does a diapsid neurodermatocranium complex look like?

A

2 temporal fenestra (an infratemporal and a supratemporal) with a lower arch made up of the zygomatic (jugal and squamosal) and an upper arch of the supratemporal (squamosal and post orbital)

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62
Q

what does the neurodermatocranium complex look like in squamates and birds

A

1/2 arches are lost secondarily to improve flexibility, allows for cranial kinesis

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63
Q

what is cranial kinesis?

A

movement of one part of “skull” independent from the rest of skull to increase feeding opportunities (eat larger prey)

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64
Q

how are snake skulls different for feeding?

A

lower jaw can spread laterally, 2 sides move independently, can also move trachea so able to breathe while eating

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65
Q

what is the secondary palate and its use

A

divides oral cavity
consists of nasal and oral passages and the internal nares (run caudally)

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66
Q

what groups have a complete secondary palate?

A

crocs and mammals

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67
Q

what is the structure of the secondary palate in crocs and mammals?

A

crocs: completely bone
mammals: caudal part is fleshy

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68
Q

why is the secondary palate important?

A

for eating and breathing at the same time

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69
Q

what does the neurodermatocranium complex look like in mammals?

A

its incomplete in infants, it creates fontanels

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70
Q

what are fontanels and their function?

A

membraneous spots between dermal bones
allows skull to have flexibility to come through birth canal

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71
Q

what does the visceral skeleton of cyclostomes look like?

A

branchial basket made of cartilage
lingual cartilage
labial cartilage

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72
Q

what does the branchial basket do in cyclostomes?

A

supports gills (not true gill arches)

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73
Q

what does the lingual cartilage and labial cartilage do in cyclostomes?

A

supports tongue
supports buccal funnel

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74
Q

explain the structure of the shark splanchnocranium

A

7 arches
#3-7 support the gills (branchial arches)
#1-2 modified for feeding

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75
Q

explain the first and second arches of the shark splanchnocranium that are modified for feeding

A

1: mandibular arch made up of palatoquadrate and Meckel’s cartilage
2: hyoid arch made up of basihyal, ceratohyal, hyomandibular

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76
Q

what are the repeating units of arches 3-7 in the shark?

A

basibranchial
hypobranchial
ceratobranchial
epibranchial
pharyngobranchial

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77
Q

describe the holostylic jaw suspension

A

palatoquadrate firmly attached to neurocranium
jaw joint is the palatoquadrate and Meckel’s cartilage
UPPER JAW IMMOBILE

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78
Q

what is the other term for holostylic?

A

autostylic

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79
Q

what groups have holostylic jaws?

A

ancestral jawed fish
secondarily evolved in ratfish

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80
Q

describe the amphistylic jaw suspension

A

the joint is the palatoquadrate, Meckel’s cartilage and the hyomandibula with the palatoquadrate and hyomandibula braced against the neurocranium
LITTLE MOBILITY

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81
Q

what groups have amphistylic jaw suspensions?

A

ancestral sharks

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82
Q

describe the hyostylic jaw suspension

A

joint is the palatoquadrate, meckel’s cartilage and hyomandibula
only hyomandibula braced against cranium
GREATER UPPER JAW MOBILITY AND INCREASED CRANIAL KINESIS

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83
Q

what groups have hyostylic jaw suspensions?

A

derived sharks through tetrapods
upper jaw will become bone (or covered by bone) and fixed in most tetrapods

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84
Q

describe bony fish jaws

A

ensheathed by dermal bones
posterior ends replaced by endochondral bones (quadrate and articular)

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85
Q

what changes about the jaw joint in bony fish?

A

now between quadrate, articular and hyomandibula

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86
Q

describe the hyoid and branchial arches in bony fish

A

ossify with endochondral bone (branchial)
hyoid adds multiple additional elements

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87
Q

which shark is known for its upper jaw protrusion?

A

goblin shark

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88
Q

how does upper jaw protrusion work?

A

the pre maxilla is mobile and the operculum spreads laterally

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89
Q

how is the pre maxilla mobile in groups with upper jaw protrusion?

A

leverage from lower mandible and maxilla to push pre maxilla out and forward as lower jaw opens

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90
Q

what does the operculum spreading laterally cause?

A

1: increase in volume of buccal cavity to create suction
2: draws in water for aiding in capturing prey and improving ventilation of gills and efficiency of gas exchange

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91
Q

describe the lower jaw in tetrapods

A

more dermal bones in some early tetrapods cartilage remains only in crocs and turtles
same jaw joint just without hyomandibula

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92
Q

describe the tetrapod hyomandibula

A

ossifies to become columella (stapes), basic tetrapod condition except for in mammals

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93
Q

what is the stapes?

A

middle ear bone that transmits sound waves from tympanum to inner ear

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94
Q

what jaw modifications do tetrapods have?

A

articular quadrate hinge

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95
Q

what jaw modifications do mammals have?

A

denture expands on the squamosal joint

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96
Q

what do the postdentary bones develop into?

A

ear bones:
hyomandibula–> stapes
quadrate–> incus
articular –> malleus

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97
Q

why do mammals have a large denture and jaw muscles?

A

for chewing

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98
Q

why do the post denture bones turn into ear bones?

A

post denture bones were already used for hearing
increased dentary for muscles not compatible
bones separate to increase hearing ability

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99
Q

what do the hyoid and branchial arches turn into in tetrapods?

A

highly modified bones, most of which support the tongue or larynx (voicebox) in mammals
alisphenoid comes from palatoquadrate

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100
Q

what are the parts of the appendicular skeleton?

A

fins, limbs, girdles
LACKING IN SNAKES, CAECILIANS, CYCLOSTOMES

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101
Q

describe the pectoral girdle in sharks

A

paired elements
fins articulate with scapula at glenoid surface

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102
Q

what new dermal bones arise in primitive bony fishes?

A

posttemporal, cleithrum bones, clavicles
posttemporal articulates with skull, clavicles brace together

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103
Q

what results from the posttemporal articulating with the skull?

A

head is fixed in place

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104
Q

what changes happen in the derived fishes? Pectoral girdles

A

lose clavicle, cleithrum becomes main brace
gain scapulocoracoid (fused bone)
lose suprascapular (in many groups)
pectoral girdles made of endochondral and dermal bone

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105
Q

what are the tetrapod pectoral girdles made of?

A

mainly endochondral bone

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106
Q

primitive tetrapods are similar to fish except:

A

lost posttemporal (head no longer fixed)
gain interclavicle (remains in birds and crocs only)

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107
Q

what is the clavicle and/or coracoid combo in tetrapods?

A

sternum
NO DIRECT DORSAL BRACING

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108
Q

what do amphibians have for a pectoral girdle

A

have supra scapular
clavicle lacking in some (salamanders)

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109
Q

describe the pectoral girdle in sauropsids

A

most lose clavicles, coracoid is main brace
BIRDS ARE THE EXCEPTION

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110
Q

how is a birds pectoral girdle different?

A

fuses into furculum (WISHBONE)
important for slight muscle attachment (increase surface area)

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111
Q

which mammals retain the basic tetrapod design?

A

primitive mammals: monotremes ( platypus, echidna) and marsupials (kangaroo)

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112
Q

what is the pectoral structure in placentals?

A

coracoid is lost in most
the scapula becomes well developed
Clavicle rarely reduced

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113
Q

which placentals do have a reduced clavicle?

A

some carnivores for increased flexibility and stride length to improve speed

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114
Q

describe the pelvic girdle in fish

A

made of cartilage or endochondral bone
pair of ischiopubic plates
not connected to vertebrae

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115
Q

what are the 3 plates of the pelvic girdle in tetrapods?

A

ilium (ILIUM CONNECTS TO VERTEBRAL COLUMN)
ischium
pubis

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116
Q

where do the 3 parts of the pelvic girdle in tetrapods meet?

A

ventral symphysis

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117
Q

what is a symphysis?

A

joint of immovable cartilage

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118
Q

why does the tetrapod pelvic girdle have such a weird shape?

A

allows urogenital and digestive systems to pass through

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119
Q

describe the tetrapod variability in salamanders pelvic

A

weak
broad pelvic plate

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120
Q

describe the tetrapod variability in frogs/toads pelvic

A

more developed for jumping
have urostyle for further bracing

121
Q

describe the tetrapod variability in reptiles pelvic

A

more robust
triradiate design where the pubis and ischium move apart

122
Q

describe the tetrapod variability in birds pelvic

A

pubis and ischium parallel and caudally oriented
fuse with vertebrae to create a synsacrum
pubis bones apart ventrally and do not meet

123
Q

what do birds pubis bones part ventrally and not meet?

A

to allow them to lay large eggs

124
Q

describe the tetrapod variability in mammals (pelvic)

A

most robust
bones fuse in os coxa to accommodate weight
primitive mammals retain epipubic bone
others have the os coxa fuse to the sacrum for increased strength

125
Q

what does the epipubic bone do in primitive mammals

A

supports the pouch of marsupials

126
Q

what are the modifications to the female pelvis?

A

wider pelvic canal
wider pelvis overall
pubic symphysis expands for birth
hormone relaxin softens cartilage of pubic symphysis

127
Q

list the types of fins

A

paired (pectoral/pelvic)
median (dorsal/anal)
caudal (tail)

128
Q

what is the function of the paired fins?

A

steering and braking

129
Q

what is the function of the median fins?

A

maintain position and prevent rolling

130
Q

what is the function of the caudal fin?

A

thrust

131
Q

what is the basic structure of a fin?

A

skin stiffened by rays, either bony dermal rays (bony fish) or long keratin based rays

132
Q

what are bony dermal rays in fins called?

A

lepidotrichia

133
Q

what are long keratin based rays in fins called?

A

ceratotrichia

134
Q

what skeletal elements exist in the fins?

A

both cartilage and bone elements
1 row basal
> or equal to one row radialia
ALL FINS BUT CAUDAL

135
Q

what are ray fins?

A

reduced skeleton for improved flexibility
found in actinopterygii

136
Q

what are fin folds?

A

broad with 2-3 basals
occur in Chondrichthyes

137
Q

what are lobed fins?

A

proximal muscular lobe
central axis (axial) [basal]
2 series of radials
found in sarcopterygii

138
Q

what are heterocercal caudal fins?

A

only caudal fins that are strongly asymmetrical
notochord and vertebrae in dorsal lobe
ventral lobe generates upward thrust to counteract negative buoyancy

139
Q

what groups have heterocercal caudal fins?

A

sharks because they have no swim bladder

140
Q

what are diphycercal caudal fins?

A

symmetrical
notochord and vertebrae very short

141
Q

what groups have diphycercal caudal fins?

A

sarcopterygii

142
Q

what are homocercal caudal fins?

A

notochord long and dorsal
symmetrical

143
Q

what groups have homocercal caudal fins?

A

actinopterygii

144
Q

Example of tetrapod limb evolution from lobed fishes: forelimbs

A

Humerus from basal
Radius from preaxial radials
Ulna from post axial radials
Other radials forming digits [or digits are a brand new structure]

145
Q

Tetrapod forelimbs/hindlimbs structure

A

Propodium
Epipodium
Autopodium

146
Q

What is propodium?

A

Upper arm/thigh
1 large bone

147
Q

What is the epipodium?

A

Forearm/shank
2 smaller bones

148
Q

What is autopodium?

A

Wrist/ankle to digits

149
Q

What modifications are made to the forelimb epipodium in different tetrapods?

A

In bats/frogs/toads ulna is fused and reduced to increase strength (and decrease mass in bats) for specialized locomotion

150
Q

What modifications are made to the forelimb propodium in tetrapods?

A

Very little differences, however birds have hollow bones that contain air sacs
And the humerus is extremely robust in moles/digging mammals

151
Q

What are the differences in the propodium and epipodium of the hindlimbs of tetrapods ?

A

Propodium: similar across tetrapods
Epipodium: fibula is reduced in birds, and lost or reduced in ungulates, fused to tibia in frogs/toads

152
Q

Why do ungulates have a lost or reduced fibula?

A

Increases strength and decreases mass

153
Q

What is the patella, what animals have it, and how does it form

A

Knee cap
Only found in birds/mammals
Ossifies in tendon

154
Q

What is the function of the patella?

A

Protection from action of tendon, prevents friction
Acts as fulcrum (lifts tendon up to improve leverage and power of quadriceps muscles)

155
Q

What is the layout of the manus?

A

Wrist made of 3 rows of carpals
Palm made of metacarpals
Digits called phalanges

156
Q

What does pentadactyl mean

A

5 digits (most tetrapods)

157
Q

How are amphibs manus different

A

Digit reduction 5–> 4

158
Q

Reptile and mammal manus variation

A

Most have 5 digits
Reduced carpals
Reduced digits for locomotion in birds (3)

159
Q

Why do birds only have 3 toes

A

For flight
Lots of reduced and fused bones in Manus

160
Q

What are pes?

A

Feet
Similar to manus (tarsals/metatarsals/phalanges)
Usually 5 digits (birds and lizards 4)

161
Q

What is the pes difference in reptiles/birds

A

Reduced tarsals
Intratarsal joint for flexibility for bipedal locomotion

162
Q

Lizard that does bipedal locomotion

A

“Jesus Christ” lizard (basilisk walks on water)

163
Q

What are the 3 stances for manus/pes

A

Plantigrade
Digitigrade
Unguligrade

164
Q

What is plantigrade stance

A

Slow
Wrist/ankle through digits touch the ground
Ex: elephant human bear

165
Q

What is digitigrade stance

A

Fast in bursts
Digits only touching ground
Ex: carnivores/sprinters

166
Q

What is the advantage of digitigrade stance

A

Less surface contacting ground which leads to longer strides which increase speed

167
Q

What is unguligrade stance

A

Reduced digits (1-4)
Elongated metacarpals/metatarsals
Up on digit tips
Fast and long distance runners
Ex: antelope

168
Q

Explain why each part of unguligrade stance is important

A

Less toes: greater strength less mass less friction
Elongated metacarpals/tarsals: increase stride length
Up on digit tips: longest limb and stride
Fast: to outrun carnivores

169
Q

What is a somatic muscle?

A

Striated and voluntary
Orient body in environment
Innervated by spinal and cranial nerves

170
Q

What is visceral muscle?

A

Muscles of organs and skin
Innervated by autonomic nerves
Smooth and cardiac (involuntary)

171
Q

What is the origin of a muscle

A

Attachment that remains stationary during muscle contraction

172
Q

What is the insertion of a muscle

A

Attachment that moves during a contraction

173
Q

What is the belly of a muscle

A

Body of the muscle

174
Q

How do muscles usually work

A

Antagonistically

175
Q

What are the axial muscles of the somatic muscle group

A

Trunk and tail muscles
Have strong segmentation, 2 types divided by horizontal septum EXCEPT AGNATHANS

176
Q

2 types of muscles divided by the horizontal septum

A

Above: epaxial
Below: hypaxial

177
Q

Describe the axial muscles in fish

A

Strong segmentation
Lateral undulation of caudal fin
Interrupted by girdles and gills

178
Q

Which muscles are dorsal to the gills? Ventral?

A

Epibranchial
Hypobranchial

179
Q

Describe the axial muscles in aquatic salamanders

A

Retain strong segmentation
Use tail/caudal fin for swimming

180
Q

Describe the axial muscles in amniotes

A

Lose most segmentation
Increased dorsoventral flexibility

181
Q

What do the epaxials do in tetrapods?

A

Straighten vertebral column and lateral flexion

182
Q

Describe intervertebrals (w/in epaxials)

A

Deep, retain segmentation
Connect vertebrae between processes
Maintain posture

183
Q

Describe the Longissimus

A

Lateral to transverse processes
Dominant extensor in mammals
Assist in head movement

184
Q

what are the spinales?

A

medial to transverse processes
assist in head movement
combine with intervertebral to create multifidus spinae that stabilize the vertebral column

185
Q

what are the iliocostales?

A

lateral to longissimus
ilium to anterior ribs
allows for lateral undulation

186
Q

which are the dominant epaxial in reptiles for locomotion?

A

iliocostales

187
Q

what are the subvertebrals?

A

beneath transverse process between axis and pelvis
used to flex vertebral column especially neck and lumbar

188
Q

give examples of the subvertebrals

A

quadratus lumborum in amniotes
psoas minor in mammals

189
Q

what are the obliques

A

broad sheets of muscle where the fibers fun diagonal from long body axis
in amniotes, this includes the intercostals and supracostal

190
Q

what is the transverse

A

transverse abdominis
broad sheets of muscle with perpendicular fibers

191
Q

what do the obliques and transverse work together to do?

A

lung ventilation
used during pooping/childbirth
muscular sling for viscera

192
Q

which muscles are reduced in turtles

A

obliques and transverse

193
Q

describe the rectus muscle

A

rectus abdominis
flexes trunk
sling for viscera

194
Q

how are the hypobranchials organized in fish

A

extend from coracoid to lower jaw (coraco- muscles)
to gill arches

195
Q

what are the coracomuscles in the jaw and the gill arches?

A

coracoarcual, coracohyoid, coracomandibularis
coracobranchial

196
Q

what do the hypobranchials do?

A

open jaw and expand pharynx

197
Q

what are the modifications to the amphibian hypobranchials?

A

rectus cervicis comes from coracoarcual, coracohyoid, coracomandibularis, coracobranchials (same function)
geniohyoid, genioglossus, and hyoglossus from coracomandibularis (to operate tongue)

198
Q

what are the modifications to the amniote hypobranchials?

A

long straps that allow for a longer neck
rectus cervicis splits into many hyoid and thyroid muscles
(allows for swallowing and moving tongue)

199
Q

what are the appendicular muscles?

A

muscles that insert on girdles, fins and limbs

200
Q

what special hypobranchial muscle do mammals have?

A

internal tongue muscle called the lingualis

201
Q

what are the appendicular muscles on fish?

A

extensors and flexors of paired fins
median fine develop from axial muscles

202
Q

describe the two muscle categories in tetrapods

A

extrinsic: arise from axial skeleton, insert on girdle/limb, example is latissimus dorsi
intrinsic: arise on girdle or limb, insert digitally on end

203
Q

what are the muscle groups?

A

dorsals
ventrals

204
Q

describe the dorsals muscle group

A

most from fish extensors
abduct and extend limbs forward

205
Q

describe the ventrals muscle group

A

most from flexors
adduct and flex distal parts backward

206
Q

list what each of the following intrinsic pectoral dorsals do:
1. Deltoids, scapulohumerus, subscapularis:
2. triceps brace:
3. teres major (mammals):
4. teres minor (mammals):

A
  1. rotate or adduct humerus
  2. extend forearm
  3. from latissimus dorsi, retract and rotate humerus
  4. from scapulahumeralis, retract and rotate humerus
207
Q

list what each of the following intrinsic pectoral ventrals do:
1. coracobranchialis
2. biceps brachii +brachialis
3. spinatus muscles

A
  1. adduct forelimb
  2. flex forearm
  3. (mammals) from supracoracoideus, protracts and rotates humerus
208
Q

list what each of the following extrinsic pectoral dorsals do:
1. latissimus dorsi:
2. trapezius:
3. levators, rhomboideus, serrates ventralis:

A
  1. largest in mammals, retracts forelimb
  2. (from cucullaris) splits into multiple pieces in mammals, retracting shoulder
  3. support and/or retract scapula
209
Q

list what each of the following extrinsic pectoral ventrals do:
1. pectoralis and supracoracoideus

A

adducts the forelimb, in mammals pectoralis splits into a few muscles

210
Q

explain the flight muscles in birds

A

pectoralis: down stroke, attaches to ventral side humerus
supracoracoideus: up stroke, connects to dorsal side humerus
BOTH originate on sternum and insert on humerus
supracoracoideus tendon allowing it to pull the wing up

211
Q

list what the extrinsic pelvic muscles do

A

minimal extrinsic pelvic muscles since the mammal pelvis doesn’t move
caudofemoralis: retracts hindlimb, reduced and different orientation in mammals

212
Q

list the functions of each of the intrinsic pelvic dorsals do
1. iliocus and psoas major:
2. gluteus, pyriformes, gemelli
3. vastus(s) [3] and rectus femoris, sartorius and adductors [2]

A
  1. protract and rotate femur
  2. adduct and rotate femur
  3. extend shank and adduct thigh
213
Q

what muscles make up the quadriceps (quads)

A

rectus femoris
vastus lateralis
vastus intermedius
vastus medialis

214
Q

list the functions of the ventral intrinsic pelvic muscles
1. “hamstrings”
2. gracilis

A
  1. flex shank
  2. adduct and retract hindlimb
215
Q

what are the 3 muscles that make up the hamstrings?

A

biceps femoris, semitendinosis, semimembranosis

216
Q

what are the parts of the branchiomeric muscles

A

mandibular arch
hyoid arch
branchial arches

217
Q

describe the mandibular arch in jawed fishes

A

levator palatoquadrati and spiracularis raise upper jaw
adductor mandibulae closes lower jaw
intermandibularis elevates pharynx

218
Q

describe the mandibular arch in tetrapods

A

adductor mandibular splits into masseter, temporalis, pterygoideus
intermandibularis splits into mylohyoid and digastric

219
Q

what do the mylohyoid and digastric do

A

elevates pharynx for swallowing
opens lower jaw

220
Q

describe the hyoid arch in jawed fishes

A

constrictors and interhyoideus
to constrict pharynx

221
Q

describe the hyoid arch in tetrapods

A

become depressor mandibulae PART OF DIGASTRIC IN MAMMALS to open lower jaw
sphincter colli elevates throat

222
Q

explain the hyoid arch in mammals

A

sphincter colli expands over the head, becoming the platysma and splitting into the facial muscles

223
Q

what does the platysma do?

A

functions in nonverbal communication and may have first been for suckling in infants

224
Q

explain the branchial arches in jawed fishes

A

constrictors, cucullaris and interarcuals
expand pharynx for gill ventilation and capturing prey

225
Q

explain the branchial arches in tetrapods/mammals

A

muscles for swallowing/move larynx and hold mastoid muscles for turning head

226
Q

what is the order of the digestive tract?

A

oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine
+accessory organs help along the way

227
Q

what does the oral cavity encompass?

A

mouth to pharynx

228
Q

list the parts of the oral cavity

A

tongue, oral glands, cheek pouches, teeth

229
Q

describe the tongue in jawed fishes through some amphibians

A

cyclostome tongues NOT homologous with other vertebrates
primary tongue that lacks muscle and holds prey

230
Q

describe the tongue in tetrapods

A

mobile
amphibians: projectile tongue only attached at anterior end to oral cavity, tongue flips out, sticky

231
Q

what muscles control the tongue in amphibians with a mobile tongue

A

genioglossus projects tongue, hyoglossus retracts tongue

232
Q

describe the tongue in birds

A

variable and very protrusible
woodpecker: longgggg and barbed tongue for reaching into trees to eat larvae

233
Q

describe the mammal tongue

A

muscle called frenulum lingo anchors the tongue
functions include grooming, drinking, panting (thermoregulation), communication

234
Q

what is the function of the oral glands

A

secretes mucus to lubricate foods for swallowing

235
Q

list the specialized secretions we talked about

A

anticoagulants in lamprey
some snakes have venom to subdue prey

236
Q

what oral glands do mammals have

A

salivary glands to produce saliva which is a mix of oral secretions (mucus, water, amylase)

237
Q

what is amylase

A

enzyme that breaks down starch

238
Q

describe cheek pouches

A

*best developed in hamsters
lined with cornified cells (with keratin) to resist abrasion while the pounches act as temporary food storage

239
Q

what tetrapod groups lack teeth?

A

turtles, birds

240
Q

describe the parts of the teeth

A

crown (exposed part) made of enamel with cusps (bumps) and an inner layer of dentin and pulp cavity with nerves
roots covered with cementum
attach to jaw with collagen fibers

241
Q

describe the types of tooth attachment to the jaw

A

acrodont: top attachment (fishes)
pleurodont: side (amphibians/lizards)
thecodont: bony sockets (some fish, crocs, mammals)

242
Q

which types of tooth attachment are loosely attached

A

acrodont and pleuredont

243
Q

list the patterns of tooth development

A

polyphyodont
diphyodont

244
Q

what does polyphyodont teeth mean

A

teeth replaced throughout lifetime, usually in waves (ex: every other tooth), keeps balanced distribution of good teeth across jaw

245
Q

what does diphyodont teeth mean?

A

2 sets of teeth in lifetime
milk teeth are the temporary teeth that are adequate for a simple diet and to accommodate a growing jaw, often lacks molars
permanent teeth have a jaw large enough to accommodate molars

246
Q

what are the different tooth shapes?

A

homodont
heterodont

247
Q

what are homodont teeth

A

all have the same conical shape
occurs in most vertebrates from fish to reptiles

248
Q

what are the exceptions to homodont teeth

A

tooth plate: some chondrichtyes have one for crushing mollusks
pharyngeal teeth in some bony fish

249
Q

what are heterodont teeth

A

shape varies (just in mammals)
4 types: incisors, canines, premolars, molars

250
Q

describe incisors

A

1 cutting edge: important for shipping/cutting food
continuous growth in rodents, rabbits
elephant incisors (tusks) for foraging/fighting

251
Q

describe canines

A

spear-like for holding and killing prey, tear flesh
walrus canine: use as ice picks to climb up onto ice, fighting, foraging

252
Q

describe premolars and molars

A

premolars: 2 cusps
molars: 3+ cusps, modified for diet
BOTH CHEEK TEETH

253
Q

what are the types of cheek teeth?

A

secodont
solenodont
bunodont

254
Q

what are secodont cheek teeth

A

laterally compressed and pointed
cusps of upper and lower teeth offset
allows for scissor-like action to cut flesh

255
Q

what are selenodont cheek teeth

A

flattened
crescent enamel folds
[herbivores] for grinding vegetation

256
Q

what are bunodont cheek teeth

A

generalist teeth
low rounded cusps
found in omnivores human teeth

257
Q

what is a narwal tusk

A

unusually large incisor, usually the left one, function unknown

258
Q

describe the pharynx in tetrapods

A

glottis opening to trachea
esophagus opening

259
Q

describe the pharynx in mammals

A

nasal and oral pharynx
epiglottis (cartilage) that closes trachea when swallowing to prevent aspiration
uvula

260
Q

what are the functions of the uvula?

A

sound production
close off nasopharynx when swallowing
gag reflex

261
Q

describe the gut wall morphology of the digestive tract

A
  1. mucosa
  2. submucosa
  3. muscularis
  4. serosa
262
Q

what is the mucosa of the gut wall

A

glandular epithelial lining

263
Q

what is the submucosa of the gut wall

A

connective tissue with vessels

264
Q

what is the muscularis of the gut wall

A

2 layers of smooth muscle, circular and longitudinal muscle
produce contraction to move food thru (peristalsis)

265
Q

what is the serosa of the gut wall

A

outer layer of connective tissue

266
Q

what is the esophagus

A

muscular tube that moves food to stomach

267
Q

describe the bird esophagus

A

expand to crop with keratinized lining for temporary food storage (largest in seed eaters/herbivores)
PIGEONS produce crop milk (cells lining crop slough off to make “milk” high in fat and proteins to feed nestlings

268
Q

what is the stomach?

A

muscular chambers with glandular lining

269
Q

describe the gastric glands and mucus glands

A

gastric glands produce HCL and pepsinogen (inactive form of pepsin-HCL activates pepsin to break down proteins)
mucus glands produce mucus to mix food and secretions into chyme, low pH

270
Q

where does the stomach end

A

pyloric sphincter

271
Q

which group has no stomach?

A

agnathans

272
Q

what does the stomach look like in jawed fishes?

A

straight to J shape
some ciliated

273
Q

what does the stomach look like in amphibians

A

similar to esophagus
straight
highly dispensable

274
Q

what does the stomach look like in crocs/birds

A

2 part stomach: proventriculus and gizzard

275
Q

what kind of stomach is the proventriculus/gizzard

A

1: glandular
2: muscular with grit [used to break/grind up food] with keratinized lining

276
Q

what is the gizzard analogous to in mammals?

A

teeth

277
Q

describe the variability in bird stomachs

A

reduced gizzards in frugivores

278
Q

describe the standard parts of the mammal stomach

A

funds at top (glandular part)
gastric rugae (folds) to increase surface area and allow expansion

279
Q

what’s special about ungulate stomachs

A

4 part ruminant stomachs for digesting low quality vegetation i.e. grass

280
Q

what are the 4 parts of the ruminant stomach

A

rumen
reticulum
omasum
abomasum

281
Q

what is the rumen

A

large muscular chamber with bacteria and protists for cellulose fermentation

282
Q

what is the reticulum

A

area for fermentation
regurgitate “cud” to chew further

283
Q

what does the omasum do?

A

absorb water

284
Q

what does the abomasum do?

A

“true” stomach
glandular enzymes produced for protein digestion

285
Q

what does the small intestine look like agnathans–>primative bony fish

A

short and straight (rudimentary)
increased surface area with spiral valve

286
Q

what is the small intestine in derived bony fishes?

A

pyloric seca (blind pouches)
no spiral value
increased surface area for digestion

287
Q

what are the 3 parts of the tetrapod small intestine

A

duodenum, jejunum, ileum

288
Q

what increases SA in the tetrapod SI

A

villi (lizards–> mammals)
increased coiling in mostw

289
Q

where does the small intestine end

A

ileocolic sphincter

290
Q

which groups lack large intestines

A

fish
and simple in amphibians

291
Q

what is the function of the large intestine?

A

water absorption

292
Q

describe the amniote large intestine

A

colon and rectum
ceca (w/microbes to digest cellulose)

293
Q

what’s special about horse large intestines? rabbits?

A

horses are hindgut fermenters, they have an enlarged colon with microbes for cellulose fermentation
rabbits eat their poop to further digest it (coprophagy)

294
Q

how does the length of the large intestine vary?

A

length of cecum and overall tract differs based on amount of vegetation consumed

295
Q

what does the liver do?

A

produce bile that is stored in the gallbladder

296
Q

what is bile for?

A

emulsifier to break down lipids
breaks fat into smaller droplets and mixes them up

297
Q

what does the pancreas do?

A

produces enzymes that are released into the duodenum

298
Q

what are the different pancreas structures

A

diffuse tissue in the mesentery (some bony fishes)
compact structure seen in first bend of the duodenum

Comparative (7 decks)

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