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Comparative > Lecture Exam 1 > Flashcards

Lecture Exam 1 Flashcards

weeks 1-3

1
Q

how many vertebrate species have been discovered?

A

70,000

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2
Q

What is a vertebrate?

A

phylum Chordata subphylum vertebrata

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3
Q

What are the characteristics of Chordata?

A

post anal tail for locomotion
dorsal hallow nerve cord (spinal) for communication
endostyle to produce mucus and trap food

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4
Q

what are the characteristics of vertebrata?

A

vertebrae and cranium

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5
Q

What is special about the hagfish classification?

A

it used to be considered a craniate, now it is considered a vertebrate

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6
Q

what is systematics?

A

the study of the evolutionary relationships among organisms

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7
Q

what method is used to study systematics?

A

cladistics

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8
Q

What does cladistics do?

A

determines groups of organisms based on evolutionary history regardless of overall similarity/difference

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9
Q

what is the objective of cladistics?

A

to create monophyletic groups based on shared derived characters not ancestral characters

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10
Q

what is a derived characteristic?

A

a characteristic that is newly evolved from the previous state

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11
Q

what does monophyletic mean?

A

an ancestor and all of its descendants

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12
Q

How does cladistic grouping work?

A

no taxonomic group names (no classes or families), old groups not recognized because of new monophyletic groups

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13
Q

what is a paraphyletic group?

A

a group with a common ancestor but some descendants are excluded (NOT RECOGNIZED AS VALID)

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14
Q

What is a sister group?

A

a group of organisms most closely related to another group (share the same branch of evolutionary tree)

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15
Q

What are the 4 chordate groups?

A

cephalochordata, urochordata, olfactores, vertebrata

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16
Q

how many species of cephalopchordata are there?

A

~25 species

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17
Q

what are cephalochordates?

A

marine filter feeders, lancelets

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18
Q

what does dioecious mean?

A

separate sexes [cephalochordata]

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19
Q

What are the general traits of cephalochordata?

A
  1. muscle blocks separated by connective tissue (myomeres)
  2. simple brain
  3. caudal fin
  4. cyrtopodocytes
  5. ventral to dorsal blood flow through pharyngeal bars
  6. digestive system
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20
Q

what are cyrtopodocytes?

A

excretory cells in the pharynx attached to capillaries, transfers wastes to the atrium

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21
Q

what is excretion?

A

the removal of metabolic waste from blood

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22
Q

What is the glomerulus?

A

a network of capillaries

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23
Q

how does ventral to dorsal blood flow through the pharyngeal bars work in cephalochordata?

A

gas exchange occurs by simple diffusion, and the ventral aorta and bulbilli do most of the pumping since they have no hearts

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24
Q

What do lancelets lack?

A

gill tissue

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25
Q

What is the order of a cephalochordata digestive system?

A

food -> pharyngeal bars -> endostyle -> gut

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26
Q

where does most digestion occur in cephalochordata?

A

both intra and extracellular digestions occurs in the cecum

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27
Q

What is egestion?

A

the removal of undigested food waste via the anus [cephalochordata do this as well]

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28
Q

How does water move through a cephalochordata?

A

water -> pharyngeal slits -> atrium -> atriopore

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29
Q

what are the derived characteristics of olfactores?

A

molecular similarities, presence of neural crest cells

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30
Q

What are neural crest cells?

A

cells that originate from the developing nerve cord and form other nervous system structures

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31
Q

How many species are urochordata?

A

~3,000 species

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32
Q

what are urochordata?

A

marine filter feeders

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33
Q

What is the derived character of urochordata?

A

the tunic: a protective covering made of cellulose

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34
Q

what are the general traits of tunicate adults?

A

mostly sessile (sedentary), lack some chordate characters, monoecious, heart that pumps in 2 directions

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35
Q

What does monoecious mean?

A

no separate sexes [in tunicates have both testes and ovaries]

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36
Q

what are the general traits of tunicate larvae?

A

free swimming, all 4 chordate characters

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37
Q

why do tunicates have a larvae stage if its so short?

A

it is important for dispersal since tunicate adults are sedentary

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38
Q

How many species are vertebrata?

A

~70,000

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39
Q

what are the derived characters of vertebrata?

A

cranium
vertebrae
3-part brain
neurogenic placodes
muscular pharynx and gut

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40
Q

what are the general traits of vertebrata?

A

duplication of Hox genes
inner ear: semicircular canals

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41
Q

[vertebrata] what are the 3 parts of the brain and why are there 3 parts?

A

forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
higher motor control and processing

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42
Q

[vertebrata] what are neurogenic placodes?

A

cell clusters that give rise to sensory organs

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43
Q

[vertebrata] what do the muscular pharynx and gut do?

A

support the gill arches, and gill filaments

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44
Q

[vertebrata] what are the benefits of a muscular pharynx?

A

more control/ more efficient
pumps H2O through gills to improve efficiency of gas exchange

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45
Q

[vertebrata] what are the benefits of a muscular gut?

A

improve digestive efficiency, move food faster through the gut via peristalsis

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46
Q

what do Hox genes do?

A

they regulate genes that control embryonic development

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47
Q

what is the function of the semicircular canals?

A

improve balance and equilibrium

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48
Q

Fill in blanks A/I on chordata evolutionary tree

A

A: chordata
I: postanal tail, notochord

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49
Q

Fill in blank B on chordata evolutionary tree

A

B: cephalochordata

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50
Q

Fill in blank C/F on chordata evolutionary tree

A

C: urochordata
F: tunic

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51
Q

Fill in blanks D/H on chordata evolutionary tree

A

D: olfactores
H: neural crest cells, DNA similarities

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52
Q

Fill in blanks G/E on chordata evolutionary tree

A

G: 3 part brain, neurogenic placodes
E: vertebrata

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53
Q

what are “agnathans” and why is it quotes?

A

quotes because it is not a monophyletic group, it is instead based on shared ancestral characters and due to traits they lack

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54
Q

What ancestral characters do “agnathans” have?

A

gametes released into coelom

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55
Q

what traits do “agnathans” lack?

A

lack jaws and paired fins

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56
Q

What groups make up “agnatha”?

A

cyclostomes, “ostracoderms”

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57
Q

what are the subcategories of cyclostomes?

A

myxiniformes, petromyzontiformes

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58
Q

What are myxiniformes?

A

Hagfish

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59
Q

what are petromyzontiformes?

A

lamprey

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60
Q

how many species of myxiniformes?

A

~75 species (all marine)

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61
Q

where do myxiniformes live/what do they do?

A

benthic deep water, burrow into sediment

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62
Q

what are the derived characters of myxiniformes?

A

slime glands

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63
Q

[myxiniformes] what do slime glands do, why do they do it, and how many are there?

A

secrete massive amounts of mucus
to deter predators
200 along body

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64
Q

what are the general traits of myxiniformes?

A

vertebrae called arcualia
many gill pouches (1-15 pairs of gill openings)
1 pair of semicircular canals

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65
Q

How do gill pouches work?

A

drain through internal ducts to an external gill slit (one on each side of body)

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66
Q

How many external gill slits do hagfish have?

A

most common species have only 1 pair of external gill slits

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67
Q

how many species are there of petromyzontiformes?

A

~40 (6 found in PA)(marine and freshwater)

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68
Q

what is special about the sea lamprey?

A

it is andromous, meaning adults are marine and return to freshwater rivers to breed, then die after breeding

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69
Q

What are the derived characters of petromyzontiformes?

A

round mouth with buccal funnel
7 pairs of gill pouches (all open to outside)
tidal ventilation

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70
Q

What is tidal ventilation in petromyzontiformes?

A

H2O goes in/out gill openings, very inefficient

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71
Q

why do lampreys use tidal ventilation even though it is inefficient?

A

they are parasites, using buccal funnel to attach to their hosts. using tidal ventilation allows them to feed and respire at the same time

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72
Q

What are the general traits of petromyzontiformes?

A

vertebrae: arcualia with dorsal elements
well developed eyes
2 dorsal fins
2 pairs semicircular canals

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73
Q

What are petromyzontiformes diet?

A

they are parasites, feeding on fish
using their buccal funnel and tongue, with keratinized “teeth”

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74
Q

how many species of “ostracoderms” are there?

A

none, they are extinct

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75
Q

what was the approximate size of ostracoderms?

A

<50cm in size

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76
Q

What are the derived characters of “ostracoderms”

A

dermal bone plates
paired fins (both pelvic and pectoral)
paired nostrils

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77
Q

Why are jaws important?

A

attack and catch prey
processing food
defense
building nests
mating (grasp mates or courtship displays)

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78
Q

What are the types of gnathostomata?

A

placoderms, chondrichthyes, osteichthyes

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79
Q

what are the derived characters of placoderms?

A

jaws
paired pelvic fins
3 pairs of semicircular canals

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80
Q

what are chondrichthyes?

A

cartilaginous fish

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81
Q

what are the derived characters of chondrichthyes?

A

placoid scales
pelvic claspers in males (for internal fertilization)
specialized calcification of cartilage

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82
Q

label all missing parts of the “agnathans” evolutionary tree (D is above C)

A

A: vertebrata
B: cyclostomes (1 nostril, velum)
C: slime glands
D: myxiniformes
E: buccal funnel, tidal ventilation
F: petromyzontiformes
G:paired nostrils, dermal bones
H: “ostracaderms”
I: gnathostomata (jawed fish)

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83
Q

what are the general characters of chondrichthyes?

A

cartilaginous skeleton (mineralization secondarily lost)
increased buoyancy
jaws and vertebrae calcified
series of replacement teeth

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84
Q

what are the two subdivisions of chondrichthyes?

A

holocephali and elasmobranchii

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85
Q

what is the common name for holocephali?

A

ratfishes

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86
Q

how many species of holocephali?

A

~50 species all marine

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87
Q

what are the derived characters of holocephali?

A

1 pair of gill openings (covered by fleshy operculum)
palatoquadrate fused to cranium
holostylic jaw suspension

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88
Q

what are the common names of elasmobranchii?

A

sharks, skates, rays

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89
Q

what are the derived characters of elasmobranchii?

A

separate, uncovered gill openings
hyostylic jaw suspension
only anterior palatoquadrate attached to cranium

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90
Q

how many species of elasmobranchii?

A

~1250, mostly marine

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91
Q

what’s special about elasmobranchii?

A

of the carnivores: eat vertebrates and invertebrates
largest filter feeders

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92
Q

what are the derived characters of osteichthyes?

A

swim bladder to adjust buoyancy and maintain position in water column while swimming
dermal rays in fins

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93
Q

what are osteichthyes?

A

bony fish

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94
Q

what are the two subcategories of osteichthyes?

A

actinopterygii, sacropterygii

95
Q

how many species of actinopterygii?

A

> 34,000 all aquatic

96
Q

what is the common name of actinopterygii?

A

ray-finned fishes

97
Q

what are the derived characters of actinopterygii?

A

multiple radial bones support fins
forebrain develops by folding outward

98
Q

what is the common name of sarcopterygii?

A

lobe-finned fishes

99
Q

how many species of sarcopterygii?

A

~8 species mostly freshwater

100
Q

what are two examples of sarcopterygii?

A

lungfishes- breathe air
coelocanth- marine

101
Q

what are the derived characters of sarcopterygii?

A

muscular lobes at fin base
single series of bones supporting fins

102
Q

label the evolutionary tree of gnathostomata

A

A: gnathostomata (3 pairs semicircular canals, jaws, paired pelvic fins)
B: placoderms +
C: holocephali
D: fused palatoquadrate to cranium
E: condrichthyes (placoid scales, pelvic claspers)
F: palatoquadrate anterior attachment to cranium
G: elasmobranchii
H: actinopterygii
I: forebrain folds outward
J: muscular lobe
K: sarcopterygii
L: osteichthyes (swim bladder, dermal rays)

103
Q

what are the derived characters of tetrapoda?

A

4 limbs with digits

104
Q

how many species of amphibia are there?

A

~8,300

105
Q

what does amphibia mean?

A

double life

106
Q

how are amphibia aquatic/semi aquatic?

A

need H2O for reproduction and respiration, for reproductions because need to prevent eggs from drying out

107
Q

what are the groups within amphibia?

A

caecilians, salamanders, frogs/toads

108
Q

what are the derived characters of amphibians?

A

pedicellate teeth (tooth joint, flexible, aids in handling prey), thin skin, mucous glands (moist skin for respiration

109
Q

what are the derived characters of aves?

A

feathers, hollow bones, air sacs

110
Q

why are air sacs special?

A

most efficient respiratory system of terrestrial vertebrates

111
Q

what is integument?

A

the interface between internal and external, covering all surfaces even eyes (conjunctiva)

112
Q

what are the 2 layers of integument?

A

epidermis and dermis

113
Q

what is the epidermis?

A

multilayered level of integument containing glands and having continuous cell division

114
Q

why does the epidermis have continuous cell division?

A

to repair wounds and replace dead cells that shed

115
Q

what is the dermis?

A

layers of connective tissue, blood vessels and nerves, layer that attaches to body wall musculature

116
Q

what epidermis layers are nonliving coverings?

A

mucus cuticle and stratum corneum

117
Q

what is the mucus cuticle?

A

a thin coat of mucus continually secreted for moisture, antibacterial properties and defense

118
Q

what is the stratum corneum?

A

layer of dead cornified cells (become infused with keratin and die) that is waterproof and in terrestrial vertebrates prevents desiccation

119
Q

what is contained in the epidermis of aquatic vertebrates?

A

mucus glands, granular glands (can also make mucus, or chemicals to repel predators), keratin

120
Q

what aquatic vertebrates have keratin and where?

A

cyclostomes and tadpoles
cornified spines “teeth”

121
Q

what glands do tetrapods have?

A

mucus (absent from mot but amphibians have), granular

122
Q

what do granular glands do in amphibians?

A

secrete toxins, release pheromones

123
Q

what are pheromones?

A

chemicals released into the environment that affect the physiology of other individuals for mate attraction

124
Q

why do certain animals have warning colors?

A

to advertise their unpalatability to predators (aposematic coloration)

125
Q

why are the avian glands?

A

uropygial gland

126
Q

what does the uropygial gland do?

A

secretes oil for feather conditioning (prominent in waterfowl due to waterproofing ability)

127
Q

what glands do mammals have?

A

sebaceous, ceruminous, sudoriferous, scent, mammary

128
Q

what are sebaceous glands?

A

glands that open into the hair follicle and produce sebum, an oily conditioner

129
Q

what are ceruminous glands?

A

glands that produce cerumen (ear wax) in the outer ear canal, work with hairs in ear canal to capture particles that could damage ear drum

130
Q

what are sudoriferous glands?

A

sweat glands that produce watery secretions for the functions of thermoregulatory cooling (via evaporative cooling)

131
Q

where are sudoriferous glands located?

A

varies between different mammals
rabbits=lips, monkeys=palms etc

132
Q

what are scent glands?

A

modified sebaceous and sudoriferous glands that produce pheromones and defense chemicals

133
Q

what are mammary glands?

A

compound alveolar glands that produce milk high in lipids, number is related to general number of offspring a species produces at one time

134
Q

What stratum corneum derivatives do tetrapods have?

A

epidermal scales, claws/nails/hooves, feathers, hair, horns

135
Q

what kind of epidermal scales do squamates have and what do thy do?

A

thickening of stratum corneum (2 layers) that overlap with joints to serve as protection from abrasion

136
Q

what kind of epidermal scale do turtles have?

A

turtles have scutes, which are nonoverlapping scales of stratum corneum that shed/continually wear over time.

137
Q

what is a turtles dorsal and ventral shell called?

A

dorsal: carapace
ventral: plastron

138
Q

do birds have epidermal scales?

A

Yes! birds have localized epidermal scales covering their feet

139
Q

what mammals have epidermal scales?

A

armadillo, pangolin, beaver (tails)

140
Q

what animals have claws?

A

first appeared in amniotes, now mainly cats and squamates

141
Q

what animals have nails?

A

humans and primates

142
Q

what animals have hooves?

A

many mammals, known as ungulates

143
Q

what is similar about nails and hooves?

A

continually grow and wear over time

144
Q

describe the structure of feathers

A

rachis=shaft
calamus= quill
vane= made of barbs

145
Q

what does plumaceous mean?

A

loosely organized barbs

146
Q

what does pennaceous mean?

A

barbs tightly knit together into a broad surface

147
Q

what are the five types of feather?

A

contour, bristle, filoplume, down, semiplume

148
Q

what is a contour feather?

A

2 types:
body: streamlined shape
flight: strong flat surface to generate lift and thrust

149
Q

what is a bristle feather?

A

tactile receptor for foraging (like whiskers)

150
Q

what is a filoplume?

A

air receptor around wings to help pick up windspeed and direction

151
Q

what are down feathers?

A

for insulation

152
Q

what are semiplumes?

A

for both insulation and streamlined shape, used in mating behavior

153
Q

what are pterylae?

A

feather tracts

154
Q

what are apteria?

A

areas without feathers on a birds skin to improve flexibility and provide places for heat loss
PENGUINS ARE EXCEPTION: NO APTERIA

155
Q

what is pelage?

A

dense covering of hair

156
Q

what is guard hair?

A

hair that protects against wear and creates color patterns

157
Q

what is underhair?

A

tightly packed hairs for insulation

158
Q

what is the arrector pilli?

A

smooth muscles attached to hair follicles that adjust hair position to make it better for insulation (increase ability to trap air, makes goosebumps in people)

159
Q

what are the types of horns?

A

bovine, pronghorn, hair

160
Q

what are bovine horns?

A

sheath of keratin covering dermal bone that never sheds

161
Q

what are pronghorns?

A

branched horns with shealths that shed

162
Q

what are hair horns?

A

mass of keratin fibers that never shed and sit on the nasal bone

163
Q

what are antlers?

A

structures made of dermal bone that grow underneath a velvet integument which comes from epidermis and dermis. they are shed and replaced annually, and usually found in males and used to compete for mates

164
Q

what are ossicones?

A

protrusion on giraffes and okapis that have a bone core that develops separate from the skull and are covered in skin, and never shed

165
Q

what are chromatophores?

A

pigment cells

166
Q

what is the dermis?

A

a thick matrix of collagen fibers with proteins for support and protection and mineral depositions that assist in bone production

167
Q

what do ostracoderms and placoderms have in terms of dermis?

A

plates of primative dermal bone composed of 4 layers (compact, spongy, dentin, enamel) as well as denticles (projections of dentin and enamel, scale like in appearance)

168
Q

what are the types of scales?

A

placoid, cosmoid, ganoid. elasmoid (cycloid and ctenoid)

169
Q

what are placoid scales?

A

scales consisting of a bony plate and a spine (spine is a denticle made of dentin covered by enameloid), these give rise to teeth in gnathostomes

170
Q

what are cosmoid scales?

A

cosmine layer under the enamel, occur in the extinct sarcopterygii

171
Q

what are ganoid scales?

A

scales that lack dentin, occur in primitive actinopterygii (gar)

172
Q

what do cosmoid and ganoid scales have in common?

A

both types have spongy (vascular) and compact (lamellar) bone

173
Q

what are elasmoid scales?

A

scales with thin layers of compact bone (very flexible)

174
Q

what is the difference between cycloid and ctenoid scales?

A

cycloid: round pattern, smooth
ctenoid: “teeth”, rough, comb like border (sarcopterygii and actinopterygii)

175
Q

what type of dermal bone do tetrapods have?

A

compact bone only

176
Q

which tetrapods have dermal bone?

A

osteoderms: small bony scales
caecilians
crocodiles

177
Q

what kind of dermal bone do turtles have?

A

dermal plates under the scutes, fuse to ribs and vertebrae EXCEPT LEATHERBACK SEA TURTLES AND SOFT SHELL TURTLES

178
Q

what are other dermal bones we discussed?

A

birds: mostly absent
mammals: rare except armadillos have dermal armor

179
Q

what is the skeleton made of?

A

mineralized tissue (cartilage and bone), bundles of collagen fibers (tendons, ligaments)

180
Q

what do tendons and ligaments do?

A

connects muscle to bone
connects bone to bone

181
Q

what are the categories of bone?

A

membrane and endochondral

182
Q

what is membrane bone?

A

bone that forms from membranous sheets of mesenchyme (undifferentiated tissue), dermal bone when made in the dermis

183
Q

what is endochondral bone?

A

bone produced only with cartilage precursors

184
Q

what are the 3 growth areas in bones?

A

middle of shaft (short lived)
epiphyseal plates: one at each end (growth plates)

185
Q

how do growth plates work?

A

cartilage is first produced and then ossifies
in bird and mammals the plates ossify at maturity (determinate growth)

186
Q

what is indeterminate growth?

A

most vertebrate growth is continuous throughout life

187
Q

what is the axial skeleton?

A

vertebral column
ribs and sterna
skull

188
Q

what are vertebrae composed of?

A

centrum
neural arch (contains spinal cord)
apophyses (processes)
hemal arch (tail in fish, contains caudal artery and vein)

189
Q

what in amniotes is homologous to hemal arch in fish?

A

chevron bone in caudal vertebrae

190
Q

what are zygapophyses?

A

paired arterial facets where vertebrae lock together which limits dorsoventral flexion

191
Q

what is the vertebral column in “agnathans”?

A

arcualia

192
Q

what is the vertebral column in jawed fish?

A

has little specialization apart from dorsals (trunk) and caudals (tail) mainly to allow for lateral movements

193
Q

why do amphibia need water for respiration?

A

gas diffuses in/out of water into blood

194
Q

what are the derived characters of amniota?

A

amniotic egg (yolk sac and 3 new extraembryonic membranes)

195
Q

what is the yolk sac for?

A

ancestral trait meant to store nutrents

196
Q

what are amnion (and chorion)?

A

fluid filled sacs to prevent desiccations and protect against shocks

197
Q

what does the amnion/chorion fuse to and why?

A

the allantois (stores waste) allowing the embryo to develop out of water and grow larger/ become highly vascularized for gas exchange

198
Q

what does amniote systematics entail?

A

the skull and temporal fenestra (opening in skull in temporal region)

199
Q

what are the 3 types of amniotes (in regards to fenestra?

A

anapsid (no fenestra), synapsid (1 fenestra) diapsid (2 fenestra)

200
Q

what is the function of temporal fenestra?

A

increase surface area for jaw muscle attachment
more room for larger jaw
allows different orientation of jaw muscles to improve jaw action

201
Q

what falls under synapsida and how many species?

A

mammalia, ~5500

202
Q

what are the derived characters of synapsida mammalia?

A

synapsid skull, hair, mammary glands, endothermic (regulate body temp through metabolism)

203
Q

what are sauropsida and what are the derived characters?

A

“reptiles” and birds
beta keratin in skin
uric acid

204
Q

What are the types of amniotes?

A

synapsida, mammalia, sauropsida, diapsida, testudinia, squamata, lepidosauria, archiosauria, crocodilia, aves

205
Q

how many species of squamata and what are the derived characters?

A

~11,000 species (HIGHEST DIVERSITY)
hemipenes, paired male copulatory organs, sperm groom, some secondary lost limbs, swallow prey larger than mouth

206
Q

what are diapsida and what are the derived characters?

A

lizards and birds
diapsid skull

207
Q

what are the derived characters of lepidosauria?

A

overlapping scales of keratin
transverse cloaca

208
Q

What are testudinia, how many species and what are the derived characters?

A

turtles
~350
loss of diapsid skull (anapsid)
shell of keratin and bone

209
Q

what are the derived characters of archosauria and what are archosauria?

A

crocodilia and aves
antorbita fenestra
triangular orbit shape

210
Q

how many crocodilia species and what are the derived characters?

A

24
complete secondary palate so they can breathe with prey in their mouth
also drowns prey

211
Q

What does the fish vertebral column look like in elasmobranchii?

A

Notochord present
Amphicelous centra (concave at both ends) limiting flexibility
Elastic ligament that connects the neural arches (and limits dorsoventral movement)

212
Q

What does the fish vert column look like in actinopterygii?

A

Ossified(endochondral bone) with an Amphicelous center and supraneural bones that fuse to vertebrae and support the dorsal fin muscles

213
Q

What are the different types of tetrapod vertebrae?

A

Amphicelous
Opisthocelous
Procelous
Acelous

214
Q

what are amphicelous vertebrae and what tetrapods have them?

A

concave at both ends
some early amphibians and squamata

215
Q

what are opisthocelous vertebrae and what tetrapods have them?

A

concave posterior
salamanders

216
Q

what are procelous vertebrae and what tetrapods have them?

A

concave anterior
frogs/toads and most sauropsids

217
Q

what are acetous vertebrae and what tetrapods have them?

A

not concave, with an intervertebral disk between vertebrae (for distributing weight and pressure evenly)
mammals

218
Q

what are the regions of tetrapod vertebral column

A

cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, caudal

219
Q

why is tetrapod vertebrae different?

A

it has to support greater mass, increased flexibility for locomotion

220
Q

what tetrapod vertebrae trends are there

A

most tetrapods only have ribs in the thoracic region
sacral vertebrae support the pelvic girdle

221
Q

what is the exception to the general tetrapod vertebrae?

A

snakes and caecilians
(snakes: most vertebrae have ribs, largest number of vertebrae)

222
Q

what is the function of snake vertebrae?

A

so many ribs to support trunk muscles, lots of flexibility for locomotion and to kill prey by constriction

223
Q

what are the parts of snake vertebrae?

A

atlas and axis
pre caudal/thoracic (ones with ribs)
causals (no ribs)

224
Q

egg eating snake has what

A

specialized ventral hypapophyses to crack eggs

225
Q

how many cervical vertebrae do amphibians have

A

1
lacks processes
only allows head nodding motion

226
Q

how many cervical vertebrae do amniotes have?

A

several with 2 highly modified (atlas and axis)
allows for considerable head mobility- flexible head to search for prey and watch for predators

227
Q

how many cervical vertebrae do birds have?

A

the most- 12+
heterocelous: saddle shaped
allows for highest mobility

228
Q

how many sacral vertebrae do the amphibians, sauropsids and mammals have

A

1
2
3-5

229
Q

what is it called when the sacral vertebrae fuse into one structure and why is it beneficial?

A

sacrum
added strength

230
Q

what is the synsacrum?

A

the fusion of vertebrae to the pelvic girdle in birds
large fused bone structure from thoracic to caudal to help with flight and bipedal locomotion

231
Q

what are caudal vertebrae?

A

numerous and reduced process vertebrae located in a tail that allows for more flexibility

232
Q

what does the caudal vertebrae look like in frogs/toads?

A

fused into what is called a urostyle which braces the pelvic girdle for jumping

233
Q

what does the caudal vertebrae look like in squamates

A

made up of fracture planes (weak spots in centra) which allows for self amputation of tail as a distraction from predators which can then regenerate with cartilage

234
Q

what does the caudal vertebrae look like in birds?

A

fused last causals called the prostyle which supports the tail

Comparative (7 decks)

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