Final exam Flashcards
Female reproductive-
what animals have unpaired ovaries
hagfish, birds, bats
how are eggs produced?
oocytes produce eggs, develop into follicles
what is ovulation?
when the egg is released into the coelem
what happens to the ovaries after breeding?
they shrink (EXCEPT IN PLACENTALS)
what are oviducts?
muscular and glandular ducts with an ostium (opening) and an infundibulum (“funnel”) that end at the cloaca
describe the shark oviduct
have large eggs called ovum
single ostium
what is the shell gland in shark oviducts?
Secretes the calcium shell around the fertilized egg
what is the yolk in a shark?
egg cell (ovum) and lipids
do sharks have a uterus?
yes, they are a few viviparous species?
what does viviparous mean?
giving birth to live young that developed inside the mothers body
what is the leathery shell that sometimes surrounds shark eggs?
mermaid’s purse
what do the oviducts look like in derived bony fish?
ovarian cavity is continuous with oviduct
carried directly to genital pore
no cloaca
describe amphibian oviducts
secrete jelly like layer around eggs
have ovisacs
what is the benefit of the jelly layer around amphibians eggs
prevent desiccation
what are ovisacs and what do they do?
caudal expansion of oviduct to store eggs
allows to hold eggs until water and temperature conditions are right
What do somatic nerves control?
Voluntary actions and skeletal muscles
Are sensory nerves afferent or efferent?
Afferent
Where do sensory nerves carry signals?
Central nervous system
Are motor nerves afferent or efferent?
efferent
Where do motor nerves carry signals?
From CNS to effector cells in muscles
What are mixed nerves?
Have both sensory and motor fibers
What do Visceral nerves control?
Involuntary actions
Where do visceral nerves send signals to/from?
organs, glands, and smooth muscle
What is another name for visceral nerves?
autonomic nervous system
What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
Sympathetic and parasympathetic
What is the function of the sympathetic nervous system?
Energy expenditure and arousal
What is the function of the parasympathetic nervous system?
Energy and self-maintenance
What is it called when the sympathetic and parasympathetic NS connect to the same organ?
antagonist effect
Which division of the autonomic NS increases heart rate?
sympathetic
Which division of the autonomic NS lowers heart rate?
parasympathetic
Which division of the autonomic NS decreases digestion?
Sympathetic
which division of the autonomic NS increases digestion?
Parasympathetic
What is the function of the Central NS?
integration and processing
What is the function of the spinal cord?
receive sensory signals and send motor signals
What part of the Central NS integrates simple reflexive responses?
Spinal Cord
What is the function of the brain?
Complex integration and processing
What are Meninges?
connective tissue covering brain and spinal cord
Name the layers of meninges in Fish.
- Primitive meninx
What is Primitive Meninx in fish?
Vascular membrane
Name the layers of meninges in Amphibs and Reptiles.
- Leptomeninx
- Duramater
Describe the Leptomeninx in Amphibs and Reptiles.
The inner, vascularized layer
Describe the Dura mater in Amphibs and Reptiles.
The tough, outer layer
Name the layers of meninges in Birds and Mammals.
- Pia mater
- Arachnoid
- Dura mater
Where is the subarachnoid space in birds and mammals?
Between the Pia mater and Arachnoid
What fills the subarachnoid space in birds and mammals?
cerebrospinal fluid
Describe the Pia mater in birds and mammals.
The inner, vascularized layer
Describe the Arachnoid in birds and mammals.
The middle, connective tissue layer
Describe the Dura mater in birds and mammals.
The tough, outer layer
What occupies the vertebral canal?
Spinal cord
What is the internal cavity of the spinal cord?
Neurocoel- filled with cerebrospinal fluid
What are the functions of cerebrospinal fluid?
- protective cushion
- adds buoyancy to brain
- removes waste and acts as pH buffer
What contains myelinated axons and neurons?
White matter
What contains unmyelinated axons and cell bodies?
Grey matter
What is a group of neuron bodies outside of the CNS called?
Ganglion
What contains sensory nerve fibers and ganglion in the amniote spinal cord?
Dorsal root
What contains motor nerve fibers in the amniote spinal cord?
Ventral root
What is it called when the ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal cord fuse distally?
Spinal Nerve
What is the function of interneurons?
Mostly conducting signals to/ from the brain
Some limited reflexive integration
What are bundles of nerve fibers in the CNS called?
Fiber tracts
Describe the ascending fiber tract.
Carries impulses to the brain
Describe the descending fiber tract.
Carries impulses down from the brain
What are the two spinal cord enlargements most vertebrates have?
Cervical and lumbar
Why do most vertebrates have a cervical and lumbar enlargement of the spinal cord?
It contains nerves going to the pectoral and pelvic appendages
Describe the cross-section of the agnathan spinal cord.
Flattened for diffusion
Only made of grey matter
Why do Agnathans have a flattened spinal cord?
No blood vessels in their CNS (diffusion)
Describe the cross-section of most vertebrate spinal cords.
Round or square-shaped
Describe the cross-section of a tetrapod spinal cord
folded surfaces-bulges with lots of fiber tracts
What is the cell body of a neuron?
Nucleus and organelles
What conducts signals toward the cell body in a neuron?
Dendrite
What conducts signals away from the cell body of a neuron?
Axon
What are Schwann cells?
insulating cells around axons
What is myelin?
Layers of lipids
What is an exposed, uninsulated axon?
Node of Ranvier
What is saltatory conduction?
Nerve impulses move faster by “jumping” myelinated sections and only being present at nodes of Ranvier
What do you call a myelinated axon?
Nerve fiber
What is the gap between neurons where a nerve impulse is transferred?
Synapse
What are chemicals that carry impulses across a synapse?
Neurotransmitters
What do you call one or more nerve fibers wrapped in a fibrous sheath and supplied by blood vessels?
Nerve
What is step 1 of the nerve circuit?
Sensory input + conduction to integration centers
- input comes from sensory receptors
What is step 2 of the nerve circuit?
Integration at CNS
- info process
-response is determined
What is step 3 of the nerve circuit?
Motor- output
-conduct response signals to effector cells
What vertebrate group has dorsal and ventral roots that don’t fuse?
Lampreys
What is the swelling of the spinal cord in jawed fishes called?
Urophysis
What is the function of Urophysis in jawed fishes?
Endocrine function
What is the function of neurosecretory neurons in jawed fishes?
produce neurohormones
What is produced by the Urophysis in jawed fishes?
Urotensins
What is the function of urotensins in jawed fishes?
Raises blood pressure for osmoregulation
How many spinal nerves does each segment or vertebra have?
1 pair
What is the intervertebral foramina?
opening between adjacent vertebrae where spinal nerves emerge
What are long caudal spinal nerves called?
Caudal equina
Where does Caudal equina go before exiting intervertebral foramina? Why?
Through the vertebral canal because the spinal cord grows slower than the vertebral column
What vertebrate groups have caudal equina?
Mammals, frogs, and a few fish
What is Rami?
The division of spinal nerve close to the roots
Where do dorsal ramus go?
to muscles and skin of the back
where do ventral ramus go?
to ventral muscles and skin
What Rami are only in mammals?
Rami communicantes
Describe rami communicantes
connects to sympathetic trunk (part of autonomic NS)
Carries signals with visceral functions
What is a plexus?
When 2 or more nerves unite into a common trunk and then redistribute
Where are the 2 major plexi in vertebrates?
At paired appendages
How many parts does the early development brain have?
3 parts
What is the prosencephalon?
Forebrain
What is the function of the prosencephalon?
Sensory processing
endocrine function
higher integration
What is the mesencephalon?
Midbrain
What is the function of the mesencephalon?
Sensory processing
what is the Rhombencephalon?
hindbrain
What is the function of the rhombencephalon?
movement and autonomic functions
How many parts do the later-developed brains have?
5 parts
What does the prosencephalon split into?
- telencephalon
- diencephalon
What part of the brain doesn’t split?
Mesencephalon
What does the rhombencephalon split into?
- metencephalons
- myelencephalon
What forms the neural tube?
sheets of ectoderm tissue
Where are ventricles 1 and 2 in the brain?
Left and right side of the telencephalon
Where is ventricle 3 in the brain?
diencephalon
where is ventricle 4 in the brain?
metencephalon and myelencephalon
What connects ventricles 3 and 4?
Aqueduct of Sylvius
What is the projection of the pia mater and cells lining the ventricles?
Choroid plexuses
Where are choroid plexuses most abundant?
ventricles 3 and 4
What do choroid plexuses produce?
Cerebrospinal fluid
What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid?
Collects excess H2O
Why does cerebrospinal fluid have to collect H2O from the brain?
There are no lymphatic vessels in the brain
What is special about mammals collecting cerebrospinal fluid?
It collects into subdural venous sinuses
What is a group of cell bodies in CNS?
Nucleus (nuclei)
What are glial cells?
interstitial cells with a supportive function in CNS
What structure coordinates involuntary actions?
Medulla Oblongata
What part of the brain is the medulla oblongata part of?
Myelencephalon
Is there high variation in the medulla oblongata across vertebrates?
No, they all need at the same level
What vertebrate group has a Vagal lobe?
bottom feeding fish
What is the function of the vagal lobe?
Receives signals from numerous chemoreceptors
What is the function of the cerebellum?
balance and equilibrium
coordinates voluntary muscle actions
What part of the brain is the cerebellum a part of?
metencephalon
Where does the cerebellum get sensory info from?
semicircular canals
What vertebrate groups have the largest cerebellum?
Birds and mammals
Why do birds and mammals have the largest cerebellum?
complex terrestrial movement:
flight, running, and jumping over uneven terrain
Where is the pons located in the brain?
ventral side of the metencephalon
What is the pons? what is its function?
Fiber tracts between the cerebellum and cerebrum
carrying motor signals
What vertebrate groups have a pons in their brain?
birds and mammals
What are fiber tracts through the myelencephalon to the spinal cord?
Pyramid of medulla
Where are the optic and auditory lobes located in the brain?
Mesencephalon
Where does the retina send visual input?
Optic lobes
Where do auditory lobes get input from?
inner ear
What vertebrate group has the largest optic lobes?
Birds
Why do birds have the largest optic lobes?
They rely heavily on vision for foraging and communication
What vertebrate group has well-developed auditory lobes?
Amniotes
What do auditory lobes do in amniotes?
Both lobes process reflexive responses and relay other signals to cerebral hemispheres
What is Corpora quadrigemina in amniotes?
2 sets of paired lobes (auditory and optic)
What is the Tegmentum in mammal brains?
The basal plate- not visible/deep layer
What are cerebral peduncles?
fiber tracts that communicate between the telencephalon and hindbrain (spinal cord)
What endocrine structure in vertebrates regulates wake/sleep schedule?
Epithalimus
What is the photoreceptor in agnatha?
Pineal organ
What does the Habenulae receive?
olfactory fibers and tracts from the forebrain
What is the Thalamus?
relay center where all ascending tracts meet and are sent to the telencephalon
What is the nuclei bulge in the 3rd ventricle of mammals?
Intermediate mass
What is the cross of optic nerves called?
Optic chiasma
What is the pituitary gland?
Endocrine gland
What is the hypothalamic nuclei?
center of homeostasis
What do neurosecretory neurons produce in the hypothalamus?
hormones that exert control over the pituitary gland
What part of the brain are the olfactory tract and bulb located in?
Telencephalon
What is the cerebrum made of?
2 cerebellar hemispheres
What do the olfactory tract and bulb receive?
nerves from cells lining olfactory epithelium
What vertebrate group has the smallest olfactory tract and bulb?
birds and some mammals (bats and primates)
What are two parts of the cerebrum in fish?
- Primitive Pallium
- Globus Pallidus
What is the function of the primitive Pallium in fish?
Process sensory input - olfaction
What is the function of the Globus Pallidus in fish?
Process motor signals
What happens to the Globus Pallidus in Amphibians?
It expands - additional nuclei
Why does the Globus Pallidus expand in Amphibians?
They require more muscles and control for jumping
What is the brain of non-amniotes often called?
“Olfactory brain”
Describe the Olfactory Brain of non-amniotes.
Large olfactory bulbs + large part of cerebrum devoted to olfaction
What is the new area of the cerebrum in birds and reptiles?
Dorsoventricular ridge
What is the function of the dorsoventricular ridge?
Receive + process sensory info from the thalamus
What structure allows some direct processing + motor signals to be sent to the body?
Dorsoventricular ridge
If signals from the dorsoventricular ridge aren’t sent to the body where do they go?
globus pallidus
What vertebrate groups have a major expansion of the cerebrum?
Birds and mammals
What parts of the brain are covered by the cerebrum in birds and mammals?
Diencephalon and Mesencephalon
How does the large cerebrum fit in birds and mammals?
Flexure- it becomes angled to the rest of the brain
What two groups have very similar brains?
Birds and reptiles
What is Gyri?
Ridges of the brain
What is Sulci?
Grooves of the brain
Why does the mammal brain become folded?
To increase neuron area
What is grey matter?
Neocortex on outside of brain
What vertebrates lack sulci + gyri?
Monotremes, marsupials, and some rodents
What is the fiber tract to the brain stem?
Internal Capsule
What is the fiber tract between the L + R hemispheres?
Corpus Callosum
What is used to treat severe epilepsy?
The Corpus Callosum is cut to prevent the spread of seizures
What structures are included in the basal ganglia?
Globus pallidus + 3 new nuclei
Name three new nuclei included in the basal ganglia.
- Caudate
- Putaman
- Amygdaloid
What is the function of the Caudate, Putamen, and Amygdaloid?
Process and relay motor signals between the neocortex and thalamus
What disease is associated with basal ganglia?
Parkinson’s Disease
What are the 4 lobes of the neocortex?
Temporal
Occipital
Parietal
Frontal
What is the Temporal lobe responsible for?
- Auditory and Olfactory senses
- memory
What is the Occipital lobe responsible for?
Vision
What is the Parietal lobe responsible for?
-Touch
- Math + integration
What is the Frontal lobe responsible for?
-Voluntary motor activity
- Problem solving
- memory
- personality + control over behavior
What is the inner temporal lobe?.
Hippocampus
What is the hippocampus responsible for?
- spatial memory
- Short-term memory
What disease is associated with the hippocampus?
Alzheimer’s Disease
What is special about chickadees’ hippocampus?
It grows 30% in the fall because they store seeds for winter and have to remember where they are
What is the procedure that destroys part of the neocortex to alter behavior?
Lobotomy
What were lobotomys used for?
Treating severe psychiatric disorders
Who is Antonio Egas Monz?
Won the Nobel Prize for creating the Leucotomy procedure
Who is Walter Freeman?
Created the Frontal lobotomy (ice pick lobotomy) that destroys pre-frontal cortex
What is Cranial nerve #0?
Terminal Nerve - Gnathostomes ONLY
Where is CN #0 (Terminal) located?
Olfactory mucosa to forebrain
What is the function of the terminal nerve?
Pheromone receptors - reproductive behaviors
What is CN #1?
Olfactory Nerve
Where is CN #1 (Olfactory) located?
Olfactory epithelium to olfactory bulb
What is the Cranial nerve abbreviated “VN”?
Vomeronasal Nerve
Where is the VN nerve located?
vomeronasal organ to olfactory bulb
What is the function of the VN nerve?
Accessory chemoreceptor- detects pheromones
What vertebrates have a vomeronasal nerve?
Some Mammals, Amphibians, and squamates
What is the action of lifting lips to get air to the vomeronasal organ?
Flehmen (Horses do this)
What is CN #2?
Optic Nerve
Where is the Optic Nerve located?
Retina to chiasma
Describe the optic fibers of an animal with monocular vision.
Fibers cross to opposit sides of the brain - causing 2 separate images
Describe the optic fibers of animals with binocular vision.
Only some fibers cross and continue to the opposite side of the brain -causing 1 image
What is Cranial Nerve abbreviated “E”?
Epiphyseal nerve
Where is the Epiphyseal nerve located?
Pineal or parapineal organ to habenulae (in epithalamus)
What vertebrates have an epiphyseal nerve?
Lampreys + some bony fish
Some frogs, toads, + lizards
What is the parapineal organ?
Photoreceptor
What vertebrates have a profundus nerve?
Some jawed fishes
What is the profundus nerve fused with in most vertebrates? What is it called?
Fused w/ trigeminal
Called Opthalmic branch
What does the abbreviation “ALL” stand for?
Anterior Lateral Line
What does the abbreviation “PLL” stand for?
Posterior Lateral Line
What vertebrates have an ALL and PLL?
Aquatic non-amniotes
Where are the ALL and PLL located?
Lateral line to hindbrain
What cranial nerves do the ALL and PLL merge with?
merge with CN #7, 9, 10
What is CN #8?
Vestibulocochlear
Where is CN #8 located?
Medulla Oblongata to inner ear
What are the two major branches of the Vestibulocochlear nerve? Where do they go?
- Vestibular- to semicircular canals
- Cochlear - to Organ of inner ear for hearing
What is the organ of the inner ear of fish?
Lagena
What is the organ of the inner ear for tetrapods?
Cochlea
Name the major tongue nerves.
- Hypoglossal
- Trigeminal
- Facial
- Glossopharyngeal
What major tongue nerve is responsible for motor control?
Hypoglossal
What major tongue nerve is responsible for touch?
Trigenimal (anterior)
Glossopharyngeal (posterior)
What major tongue nerve is responsible for taste?
Facial (anterior)
Glossopharyngel (posterior)
What major tongue nerve is responsible for salivation?
Facial and Glossopharyngeal
What muscle is responsible for the downstroke in turkeys?
Pectoralis major
What muscle is responsible for the upstroke in turkeys?
Supracoracoideus
What is the wishbone?
Furcula
Describe the dark meat of turkeys
High in capillaries and myoglobin
What is myoglobin?
Protein that carries O2 in muscles - turns red when exposed to air
What kind of metabolism does dark meat use?
Aerobic - for long-term endurance (legs cause they don’t fly a lot)
Describe white meat in turkeys.
High Actin + Myosin fibers (Contractile proteins)
What kind of metabolism does white meat use?
Anaerobic - for short-term activity
(breast and flight muscles)
What essential Amino acid is found in turkey?
Tryptophan
Does eating turkey make you sleepy?
No, low levels of tryptophan… it’s all the carbs
What is the autonomic Nervous system made of?
Visceral motor nerves
- sensory neurons may share the same path, but not part of ANS
Where do the branches of the sympathetic nervous system come from?
Spinal cord and spinal nerves
Where do the branches of the parasympathetic nervous system come from?
Brain and Spinal cord (sacral)
Name two types of neurons in the ANS
- Preganglionic neuron
- Postganglionic neurons
Name 3 types of ganglia in the ANS
- Sympathetic
- Collateral
- Terminal
Where are preganglionic neurons located?
CNS to autonomic ganglion
Where are postganglionic neurons located?
Autonomic ganglion to effector cells
Where are sympathetic ganglia located?
Sympathetic trunk near spinal cord
Where are Collateral ganglia located?
Near head or abdominal aorta
Where are terminal ganglia located?
In visceral organs
What nerves innervate effector cells in the skin?
Only sympathetic
What nerves innervate most effector cells?
Both sympathetic and parasympathetic
What is CN #3?
Oculomotor
What is CN #4?
Trochlear
What is CN #6?
Abducens
Where are Abducen nerves located?
Eye muscles to mid + hindbrain
What is the function of CN #3?
Autonomic connections for vision (dilation of the pupil)
What is CN #11?
Spinal Accessory
What vertebrates have CN #11?
Only tetrapods
Where is CN #11 located?
hindbrain to pharynx + soft palate
(plus Superficial Neck + shoulder Muscles in mammals)
What is CN #12?
Hypoglossal
What vertebrate groups have CN #12?
Only Tetrapods
How is CN #11 similar to the spinal nerve?
It has both dorsal and ventral roots
Where does CN #12 go?
muscles of the tongue
Where do mixed nerves originate?
From the hindbrain
What kind of signals do mixed nerves carry?
Sensory, motor, and autonomic fibers
What nerves make up the Branchiomeric Nerve?
5,7,9,10
What vertebrate group has Branchiomeric nerves?
Fishes
Where do branchial nerves go?
To branchial arches and jaws
What is the function of branchiomeric nerves?
Control ventilating gills and feeding
What is Cranial Nerve #5?
Trigeminal
What is the function of the trigeminal nerve?
Mixed
Sensory- for tactile reception.
And Motor- muscle of jaw
Where is CN #5?
Lining of head and teeth
Anterior of tounge
What is CN #7?
Facial Nerve
Where is CN #7 in fish?
In pharynx- to hyoid arch
Where is CN #7 in tetrapods?
Anterior of tongue and facial muscles
What is the function of CN #7?
Mixed
Sensory- taste receptors
Motor
Autonomic
Where do the autonomic fibers of CN #7 go?
To salivary glands and nasal mucosal membranes
What is CN #9?
glossopharyngeal
What is the function and location of CN #9 in fish?
Mixed- sensory and motor
In 3rd pharyngeal arch
What is the function and location of CN #9 in tetrapods?
Mixed
Sensory - posterior of tounge for taste, touch, and temp
Motor - Neck muscles
Where do the autonomic fibers of CN #9 go?
To one major salivary gland
What is CN #10?
Vagus Nerve
What is the function of CN #10 in fishes?
Mixed
Sensory - to oral cavity for taste and touch
motor - Pharyngeal arches
What is the function of CN #10 in tetrapods?
Mixed
Sensory - to oral cavity for taste and touch
Motor- to neck muscles for swallowing
Autonomic - to heart and visceral organs
What body system has glands that produce chemicals that influence specific target cells?
Endocrine system
How do chemical messenger hormones move around the body?
Through blood
What are general metabolic hormones? Give 1 example.
They can influence all cells
ex. insulin
What is the function of tropic hormones?
To stimulate other endocrine glands
What endocrine glands serves as an intermediary for endocrine and nervous system?
Hypothalamus
What is the function of the hypothalamus?
Recieve info from brain
Initiate hormone production
Name two main parts of the pituitary gland
- Neurohypophysis
- adenohypophysis
Where is Neurohormone produced?
At cell body of Neurosecretary neurons
Describe the path that neurohormone takes after it is produced in the cell body
Cell body > Axon > blood sinusoid > Circulation
What is a sinusoid?
Collecting chamber attached to a blood vessel
What is the neurohemal organ?
Axon terminal and sinusoid that allow neurohormones into the blood stream
What is the neurohemal organ of the pituitary gland?
Neurohypophysis
What is the neurohemal organ of the hypothalamus?
Median eminence
What is the neurohemal organ in the spinal cord of fish?
Urophysis
Where do neurohormones released from the hypothalamus go?
Either directly to neurohypophysis or through median eminence to adenohypophysis
What is the hypophyseal portal system?
set of veins connecting hypothalamus and adenohypophysis
Which endocrine gland is considered the “Master gland”?
Pituitary
Which gland stimulates the pituitary?
Hypothalamus
What is the function of the pituitary gland?
Control the activity of other glands
Where is Pars Nervosa tissue located?
Neurohypohphysis of the pituitary
What is the function of Pars nervosa tissue?
To store and secrete hormones produced by the hypothalamus
Name 2 hormones stored in pars nervosa tissue. What are their functions?
Antidiuretic hormone - optional H2O absorption
Oxytocin - stimulated muscles of uterus (for birth) and mammary glands (produce milk)
What stimulates oxytocin production?
Breast feeding and physical contact
Known as “bonding hormone”
What group of mammals has high levels of oxytocin?
Monogamous mammals
Where is pars intermedia tissue found?
Adenohypophysis
What does pars intermedia tissue produce?
melanophore-stimulating hormone
What is the function of melanophore-stimulating hormone?
mammals- adds pigment to hair follicles
Other vertebrates - influence dark pigment in chromatophores
Where is pars distalis tissue located?
Adenohypophysis
What is the function of pars distalis tissue?
Produce 4 tropic hormones and 2 direct effect hormones
Name 4 tropic hormones produced in pars distalis tissue.
1.) Thyroid-stimulating
2. Adenocorticotropic
3.) Follicle-stimulating
4.) Lutenizing
What is the function of follicle stimulating hormones in females? Males?
Females - stimulates follicle growth and egg development in the ovary
Males - stimulates spermatogenesis (sperm production)
What is the function of Lutenizing hormone in females? Males?
Females-Ovulation
Males- Androgen synthesis in testes
Name 2 direct effect hormones produced in pars distalis tissue
1.) Somatotropin
2.) Prolactin
What is the function of Somatotropin?
stimulate muscle and bone growth
What is somatotropin called in humans
Human growth hormone
What is the function of Prolactin?
influence reproductive behaviors
Name three groups and how prolactin influences their reproductive behavior.
Salamanders - stimulate migration to breeding pools
Mammals- stimulates milk products
Birds - stimulate nesting behaviors
What gland controls hormone production in adenohypophysis?
Hypothalamus
How does the adenohypophysis know to produce and release hormones?
The hypothalamus produces releasing hormone
Ex. HGH releasing hormone
How does the adenohypophysis know to stop producing and releasing hormones?
The hypothalamus produces inhibiting hormones
Ex. HGH inhibiting hormone
Where is the Pineal gland located?
Epithalamus
What hormone is secreted from the Pineal gland?
Melatonin
What is the function of Melatonin
Control skin pigmentation
control circadian rhythms
What will skin look like if melatonin levels are high?
Pale skin
Where are adrenal glands located in fish and amphibians?
scattered in parts of abdomen
Where are adrenal glands located in amniotes?
discrete glands anterior to kidneys
Name two tissues found in adrenal glands
Aminogetic tissue
Steroidogenic tissue
What is the function of aminogetic tissue?
Produce norepinephrine and epinephrine
What is another name for epinephrine?
Adrenaline
What is the function of norepinephrine and epinephrine?
Stimulate response to short-term environmental stress (fight or flight)
What is aminogetic tissue called in humans?
Adrenal Medulla
Where does epinephrine go in the body? What does it stimulate?
To liver- stimulates glycogenolysis= raise blood sugar
Where does epinephrine and norepinephrine go in the body? What does it stimulate?
To trachea- stimulates dilation = raise O2 in blood and heart rate
What is steroidogenic tissue called in humans?
Adrenal cortex
What hormones does steroidogenic tissue produce?
Glucocortiocoids
mineralcortocoids
what is the function of Glucocorticoids?
Stimulates the conversion of protein to glucose
What is the function of mineralocorticoids?
stimulates reabsorption of sodium and water in renal tubule = increase blood pressure
What else is produced in small amounts in adrenal glands?
Sex hormones
What three categories of steroid hormones do Gonads produce?
1.) androgens
2.) estrogens
3.) progesterones
What is the function of steroid hormones?
- Influence growth and development
- regulate reproductive cycles and sexual behaviors
- stimulate secondary sexual characters
Where are androgens produced?
Male testes
What do androgens stimulate to produce sperm?
Seminiferous tubules
What do androgens stimulate to secrete testosterone?
Interstitial cells
What secrets estrogen in the ovaries
Developing follicles
What does estrogen stimulate in mammals?
development and vascularization of the uterine lining (preparing for implantation)
What is it called after the follicle ruptures in the ovaries?
Corpus Luteum
What does the corpus luteum secrete?
Estrogen and progesterone
What is the function of estrogen and progesterone?
Maintains uterine lining and pregnancy
What stops the production of follicle-stimulating hormone and lutenizing hormone?
High levels of progesterone and estrogen
What happens when there is high levels of progesterone and estrogen in the body?
Ovulation stops
follicle development stops
(mechanism for birth control)
what is Chorionic gonadotropin?
produced by embryo to maintain corpus luteum
How long is the corpus luteum maintained by embryos? What takes over after this time?
1st 3 months of pregnancy
placenta takes over
what hormone causes morning sickness?
Human chorionic gonadotropin
What structure does the thyroid evolve from?
endostyle
Where is thyroid tissue located in fish?
the tissue is scattered around the ventral aorta or pharyngeal arches
What does the thyroid gland in tetrapods look like?
Usually paired, discrete glands
Name two hormones produced in the thyroid gland
Thyroxine
Calcitonin
What is the active form of thyroxine in the body?
Triiodothyronine (T3)
What is the function of Thyroxine?
Stimulates metabolism
and growth/metamorphosis in amphibians
What does an iodine deficiency cause? What solved this problem?
Goiter: big swelling of thyroid
Fixed by iodized salt
What is the function of calcitonin?
Promotes calcium deposit into bones
Where is calcitonin produced in mammals? other verts?
mammals - thyroid
other verts - ultimolorbranchial gland
What hormone does the parathyroid produce?
Parathyroid hormone
What is the function of the parathyroid hormone?
stimulates calcium release from bones (antagonist to calcitonin)
What vertebrate groups lack discrete parathyroid glands?
fish and amphibians
What two tissues is the pancreas made of?
Acini
Pancreatic islet
What does acini tissue produce?
enzymes
What does pancreatic islet produce?
Hormones
What hormones are produced by pancreatic islet tissue?
Insulin
Glucagon
What is the function of insulin?
Stimulates cells to take up glucose
What is the function of glucagon?
Stimulate glycogen breakdown = increase blood sugar
What kind of hormones are insulin and thyroid hormones?
general metabolic hormones
What is type 1 diabetes?
The body attacks cells that produce insulin = high blood sugar
What is type 2 diabetes?
Body doesn’t produce insulin or the cells become resistant
What is the Magnum in shark oviducts?
secretes albumin (egg white [protein and water])
What is spermathecae?
Fold of the oviduct/ cloaca for sperm storage
What vertebrates have spermathecae?
Squamates, turtles, salamanders, birds
what vertebrate group incubates their eggs briefly outside and takes care of them for a long time?
Monotremes
What group of mammals has short internal development and longer development in a pouch?
Marsupials
What group of mammals has longer internal development than external development?
Placentals
What is the highly vascularized lining of Therian uteri?
Endometrium
What is the muscular wall of therian uteri?
Myometrium
Where does the vagina open to in primates?
Vestibule of vulva
What is special about the reproductive tract of some Marsupials
Duplex- 2 separate reproductive tracts
Describe the reproductive tract of Therians
2 uterine horns fused distally
Describe the bipartite reproductive tract. Give two examples
has slight partitioning
ex. rabbits and hampsters
