LECTURE 8

Question 1

Scientific Realism:

Answer 1

Scientific realism is the view that the world described by science is real and exists independently of our observations and theories

Question 2

Pragmatic Reasoning vs. Epistemic Reasoning:

Answer 2

Pragmatic reasoning is concerned with the practical consequences of accepting a belief, while epistemic reasoning focuses on the truth or justification of the belief itself.

Question 3

Inference to the only explanation

Answer 3

This means inferring the best explanation for a set of observed phenomena when it is the only plausible explanation available.

Question 4

Constructive Empiricism van Fraassen

Answer 4

Constructive empiricism, proposed by Bas van Fraassen, asserts that science aims to produce empirically adequate theories, which need only to correctly describe observable phenomena, not unobservable entities.

Question 5

Arguments Against Scientific Realism:

Answer 5

Arguments include:
- Instrumentalism
- Logical Positivism
- The Problem of Underdetermination
- Constructive Empiricism

Question 6

Smart’s ‘Cosmic Coincidence’:

Answer 6

J.J.C. Smart argues that it would be an incredible cosmic coincidence if scientific theories were successful in predicting phenomena without them being at least approximately true.

Question 7

McMullin on Successful Scientific Theories:

Answer 7

Ernan McMullin suggests that a scientific theory is successful if it can explain and predict phenomena, cohere with other theories, and be fruitful for further research.

Question 8

Arguments for Scientific Realism

Answer 8

Arguments include the no-miracle argument, which claims the success of science would be miraculous if its theories were not at least approximately true, and the argument from the success of scientific practice.

Question 9

Important Concepts

Answer 9

Scientific Realism:
The belief that scientific theories describe an objective reality that exists independently of human thoughts and perceptions.

Instrumentalism:
The view that scientific theories are merely tools or instruments for predicting phenomena, not necessarily true descriptions of reality.

Pragmatic – Epistemic:
A distinction between practical reasoning based on outcomes (pragmatic) and reasoning based on truth and justification (epistemic).

Inference to the Only Explanation:
A form of reasoning where one infers the best or only plausible explanation for observed phenomena.

Constructive Empiricism:
Van Fraassen’s view that science aims only to develop theories that are empirically adequate, meaning they correctly describe observable phenomena.

Question 10

Important Individuals

Answer 10

Bas van Fraassen:

A philosopher of science known for developing constructive empiricism, which argues that the aim of science is empirical adequacy rather than truth.
J.J.C. Smart:

A philosopher who argued for scientific realism using the idea that the success of science would be an incredible cosmic coincidence if its theories were not true.
Ernan McMullin:

A philosopher of science who provided criteria for when a scientific theory can be considered successful and argued for a realist interpretation of science.

Question 11

Pragmatism

Answer 11

We have to look at the success and the practical utility/effects of
science, the success of solving practical problems, American
philosophers say
Three classic pragmatists: Peirce (say Purse), Dewey and James (first
half 20th century) = classical pragmatism

A philosophical movement that claims that:
A theory or proposition is true if it works satisfactorily and the
meaning of a proposition is to be found in the practical
consequences of accepting it; unpractical ideas are to be rejected
Central concept of pragmatism: ideas about beliefs and how to fix
our beliefs

Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that assesses the truth of beliefs and theories based on their practical consequences and usefulness.

Question 12

Descartes Foundation Thinking

Answer 12

Descartes sought to build knowledge on indubitable foundations through systematic doubt and the identification of self-evident truths.

Question 13

Peirce’s Rebellion Against Foundation Thinking

Answer 13

Peirce rejected the quest for absolute certainty and instead proposed a community-based, fallibilistic approach to knowledge, focusing on the practical effects of beliefs.

Descartes: if ideas are clear and distinct – they are
indubitably true

Peirce: Descartes is too intuitive – clear and distinct ideas
only possible through science

Reversed Cartesian thought: knowledge comes from
‘outside’ (through interactions with the world)

Focus on fallibility of beliefs

Question 14

Paper doubt vs. Living Doubt

Answer 14

Paper doubt is hypothetical and contrived, used for argument’s sake, while living doubt is genuine and disrupts our actions and beliefs.

Question 15

Peirce’s Method of Belief Fixation:

Answer 15

Peirce developed this method to explain how beliefs are formed and stabilized, emphasizing the importance of doubt and inquiry in the process.

Four Methods of Belief Fixation:

1)Tenacity: stubbornly holding on to beliefs despite contrary evidence (isolation, going lalalalal)
Example: Ignoring scientific evidence for climate change and insisting it’s a hoax.

2)Authority: Beliefs are fixed by institutions or leaders.
Example: Following religious teachings unquestioningly.

3)A priori: Beliefs are fixed by reasoning and innate ideas.
Example: Believing in moral truths derived from philosophical reasoning.

4)Science: Beliefs are fixed by empirical investigation and the scientific method.
Example: Accepting the germ theory of disease based on scientific research.

Question 16

Science as Hypothetical to the Core:

Answer 16

scientific knowledge is always provisional, subject to revision and refutation, making it fundamentally hypothetical.

Question 17

Pragmatic Maxim

Answer 17

A principle stating that the meaning of a concept or proposition lies in its observable practical consequences.

Question 18

External Permanence

Answer 18

The idea that some aspects of reality remain constant and independent of our perceptions and beliefs.

Question 19

Peirce’s Refined Correspondence Theory:

Answer 19

Peirce used a refined form of the correspondence theory of truth, which emphasizes that our beliefs aim to correspond with reality, but this correspondence is always fallible and subject to correction.

Question 20

Four Phases of Belief Fixation (Dewey):

Answer 20

-Dogmatic Phase: Beliefs are accepted unquestioningly.
Example: Children accepting the Earth is flat because their parents say so.
-Critical Phase: Questioning and doubting previously accepted beliefs.
Example: A teenager questioning the flat Earth belief after learning about astronomy.
-Axiomatic Phase: Establishing new beliefs based on reasoning and principles.
Example: Concluding that the Earth is round based on logical arguments and evidence.
-Scientific Phase: Beliefs are tested and validated through empirical research.
Example: Conducting experiments and observations to confirm the Earth’s shape.

Question 21

Context of Discovery (Dewey):

Answer 21

The process and circumstances in which scientific hypotheses and theories are generated, influenced by practical and contextual factors.

Spectator View of Knowledge:
The idea that knowing is a passive reflection of reality, which Dewey criticizes in favor of an active, participatory view of knowledge.

Question 22

Manifest vs. Scientific Image:

Answer 22

The manifest image is how the world appears in everyday experience, while the scientific image is how the world is described by science. Pragmatism blurs the distinction by emphasizing the practical integration of both views.

Question 23

Important Concepts

Answer 23

Pragmatism:

A philosophical approach that evaluates the truth of beliefs based on their practical applications and effects.
Paper Doubt – Living Doubt:

Paper doubt is hypothetical and artificial, while living doubt is genuine and affects our actual beliefs and actions.
Method of Belief Fixation:

Peirce’s framework for how beliefs are established and maintained, including tenacity, authority, a priori, and science.
Tenacity:

Holding onto a belief stubbornly despite contrary evidence.
Authority:

Accepting beliefs based on institutional or authoritative pronouncements.
A priori:

Forming beliefs based on logical reasoning and innate ideas, independent of empirical evidence.
Science:

Fixing beliefs through empirical investigation and the scientific method.
Pragmatic Maxim / Precept:

The principle that the meaning of a concept is determined by its practical consequences.
External Permanence:

The notion that certain aspects of reality are constant and independent of our perceptions.
Spectator View of Knowledge:

A passive view of knowledge as mere observation, criticized by pragmatists in favor of an active, participatory approach.

Question 24

Important Individuals

Answer 24

Charles Sanders Peirce:

A philosopher who founded pragmatism and developed the method of belief fixation, emphasizing the practical implications of beliefs.

John Dewey:

A pragmatist philosopher who expanded on Peirce’s ideas, focusing on the active and participatory nature of knowledge and the context of discovery.