LECTURE 7

Question 1

Demarcation Criterion by Thomas Kuhn

Answer 1

Kuhn proposes the concept of a “paradigm” as a demarcation criterion between science and non-science. A paradigm is a framework of theories, methods, and standards that defines scientific practice in a given period.

Question 2

Relativism

Answer 2

Relativism is the idea that points of view have no absolute truth or validity, having only relative, subjective value according to differences in perception and consideration.

Question 3

Key Difference Between Early and Later Wittgenstein:

Answer 3

Early Wittgenstein (as in the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus) believed that language’s purpose is to picture facts about the world. Later Wittgenstein (as in Philosophical Investigations) argued that the meaning of words is rooted in their public use within particular forms of life.

Question 4

Language game

Answer 4

A language game, according to Wittgenstein, is a practice that involves language and is embedded in forms of life. It reflects the varied activities and contexts in which language is used.

Question 5

Consequences of Language Game Concept for Society Analysis:

Answer 5

This concept implies that societal norms, meanings, and knowledge are context-dependent and arise from various intertwined language games. Analyzing society requires understanding these diverse linguistic contexts.

Question 6

Underlying Assumptions in the Idea of a Language Game + Function Language Rules

Answer 6

Language use is inherently social and rule-governed, meanings are context-specific, and understanding language requires looking at its practical use in different activities.

Language rules structure communication, providing consistency and predictability in language use, enabling mutual understanding.

They should be public and shared within a community, guiding how words are used meaningfully within different language games.

Question 7

Implications for Private Language:

Answer 7

Wittgenstein argues against the possibility of a private language, as language’s meaning arises from public, social interactions.

Question 8

Position of science in this approach

Answer 8

Science is seen as one of many language games with its own rules, practices, and paradigms that define what is considered valid scientific knowledge.

Question 9

“every observation is loaded with theory”

Answer 9

This means that observations are influenced by the theoretical frameworks and assumptions held by the observer, suggesting that pure, theory-independent observation is impossible.

Question 10

Constructivism and its origins

Answer 10

Constructivism is the view that scientific knowledge is constructed by scientists and not merely discovered from the world. This idea emerged from the work of thinkers like Kuhn and the later Wittgenstein, who emphasized the role of social processes and language in shaping knowledge.

Question 11

Scientific relativism

Answer 11

Scientific relativism is the view that scientific truths are not absolute but depend on the cultural, historical, and social context in which science is practiced.

Question 12

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis:

Answer 12

This hypothesis posits that the structure of a language affects its speakers’ cognition and world view, suggesting a strong link between language, thought, and cultural practices.

Question 13

Aristotle Experience’ for Kuhn:

Answer 13

Kuhn describes his experience of reading Aristotle’s works and realizing that Aristotle’s physics, while seemingly nonsensical to modern readers, made sense within its own paradigm. This was a pivotal moment in Kuhn’s development of the idea of paradigms.

Question 14

Fundamental Difference Between Kuhn and Kant:

Answer 14

Kant believed in a universal structure of human cognition that shapes our experience of the world, while Kuhn argued that the structure of scientific knowledge is shaped by paradigms, which are historically and culturally specific.

Question 15

4 Phases scientific discipline

Answer 15

Pre-scientific period
Normal science
Crisis
Scientific revolution and paradigm shift

Pre-scientific Period:
A time when there is no consensus on theories or methods, leading to diverse and often competing approaches.

Phase of Normal Science:
A period in which a consensus on the paradigm guides research, focusing on puzzle-solving within the established framework.

Question 16

Two Characteristics of Paradigms

Answer 16

They provide the foundation for further research within the normal science phase.
They guide what is studied, how research is conducted, and how results are interpreted.

Question 17

Anomaly in Kuhns Ideas

Answer 17

An anomaly is an observation or problem that cannot be explained or solved within the current paradigm, leading to a potential crisis and paradigm shift.

Question 18

Dogmatic Framework and Its Role in Teaching Paradigms:

Answer 18

A dogmatic framework refers to the established paradigm that students are taught as the unquestioned foundation of their discipline. It is crucial for maintaining normal science

Question 19

Phases of scientific revolution

Answer 19

Normal science
Emergence of anomalies
Crisis
Revolution and paradigm shift

Question 20

Incommensurability of Paradigms

Answer 20

The idea that competing paradigms are incommensurable, meaning they cannot be directly compared or fully understood within each other’s terms. It has three aspects: methodological, observational, and conceptual.

Question 21

Kuhn as a Constructivist

Answer 21

Kuhn can be called a constructivist because he believed scientific knowledge is constructed within paradigms through social processes and practices.

Question 22

Gestalt Switch

Answer 22

A Gestalt switch refers to a sudden change in perception or understanding, analogous to a paradigm shift where scientists start to see the world differently.

Question 23

Paradigm Shift as Irrational Development

Answer 23

Kuhn argues that paradigm shifts are not entirely rational because they involve a fundamental change in worldview that is not based solely on logic or empirical evidence.

Question 24

Kuhn on ComScience

Answer 24

Kuhn might describe communication science as a science if it has a well-established paradigm guiding its research practices.

Question 25

Lakatos

Answer 25

Lakatos on Popper’s Position:

Lakatos agrees that scientific knowledge is not proven but criticizes Popper’s criterion of falsifiability as too simplistic.
Lakatos’s Critique of Popper’s Falsifiability:

Lakatos believes that scientific theories are often adjusted to protect core hypotheses from falsification, making Popper’s strict criterion impractical.
Lakatos on Kuhn’s Scientific Revolutions:

Lakatos does not accept Kuhn’s view that scientific revolutions are irrational. He proposes a more rational reconstruction of scientific progress.

Question 26

Three Types of Falsifiability

Answer 26

1. Dogmatic falsificationism
2. Methodological falsificationism
3. Sophisticated falsificationism

*First Variant Untenable:
Dogmatic falsificationism is untenable because it assumes that theories can be conclusively falsified by observations, ignoring the complexity of scientific practice.

*Second Variant Untenable:
Methodological falsificationism is also untenable because it requires scientists to specify in advance the conditions under which they will abandon a theory, which is rarely done in practice.

Question 27

3 Demands for Scientific Growth

Answer 27

Theories should predict novel facts.
Theories should have empirical content.
Theories should show progressive problem shifts.

*Importance of Continuity:
Continuity is crucial because scientific knowledge builds upon existing theories, even as it evolves and incorporates new findings.

*Science as a Network:
Science consists of a “hard core” of fundamental assumptions surrounded by a “protective belt” of auxiliary hypotheses that can be adjusted to defend the core.

Question 28

Degenerative vs. Progressive Programme:

Answer 28

A degenerative programme fails to predict novel facts and resorts to ad hoc adjustments, while a progressive programme predicts novel facts and leads to scientific growth. Lakatos prefers the progressive programme.

Question 29

Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge:

Answer 29

Proposed by Paul Feyerabend, this theory suggests that there are no methodological rules that are always used by scientists. It’s called anarchistic because it opposes the idea of a universal scientific method.

Difference from Scientific Method:
The anarchistic theory rejects the idea of a single, rigid scientific method, advocating for methodological pluralism and the idea that “anything goes” in scientific practice.

Question 30

The Sokal Hoax

Answer 30

The Sokal Hoax involved physicist Alan Sokal submitting a deliberately nonsensical article to a cultural studies journal to criticize the lack of rigor in postmodern critiques of science. The method highlights issues in academic standards and peer review.

Question 31

Important concepts and people

Answer 31

Concepts
Paradigm:
A framework of theories, methods, and standards that defines scientific practice during a particular period.

Relativism:
The view that points of view and knowledge claims are relative to specific cultural, historical, or personal contexts.
Language Game:

A concept by Wittgenstein describing the varied and rule-governed activities involving language use in different contexts.

Life Forms:
Social and cultural contexts in which language games occur, shaping how language is used and understood.

Practices:
The habitual activities and behaviors that define how language is used within a community.

Meaning:
In Wittgenstein’s later philosophy, meaning arises from the practical use of language in context, rather than from its correspondence to reality.

Doctrine:
A set of beliefs or principles held and promoted by a particular group, often serving as a basis for action or policy.

Language Rules:
Norms and guidelines that govern how language is used within specific language games.

Every Observation is Loaded with Theory:
The notion that all observations are influenced by the observer’s theoretical framework and assumptions.

Constructivism:
The view that scientific knowledge is constructed by scientists through social processes and is not a mere reflection of the external world.

Scientific Relativism:
The belief that scientific knowledge and truth are contingent on the cultural, historical, and social context in which they are produced.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis:
The theory that the structure of a language affects its speakers’ cognition and perception of reality.

Normal Science:
The phase in scientific development where research is conducted within the bounds of an established paradigm, focusing on puzzle-solving.

Anomaly:
An observation or problem that cannot be explained by the current scientific paradigm, potentially leading to a paradigm shift.

Scientific Revolution:
A fundamental change in the basic concepts and experimental practices of a scientific discipline, often resulting from the accumulation of anomalies.

Paradigm Shift:
A significant change in the underlying assumptions and methodologies of a scientific discipline, replacing one paradigm with another.

incommensurability:
The idea that competing scientific paradigms are so different that they cannot be directly compared or fully understood within each other’s terms.

Gestalt Switch:
A sudden change in perception or understanding, analogous to the shift that occurs during a paradigm change in science.

Dogmatic Falsificationism:
the view that scientific theories can be conclusively falsified by a single counter-instance, which is often impractical in real scientific practice.

Methodological Falsificationism:
The approach that allows for the adjustment of auxiliary hypotheses to protect core theories from falsification, making it more reflective of actual scientific practice.

Sophisticated Falsificationism:
A nuanced view of falsifiability that considers a theory’s ability to predict novel facts and accommodate empirical content over time.

Three Demands for Scientific Growth:
Criteria proposed by Lakatos: theories should predict novel facts, have empirical content, and show progressive problem shifts.

Positive/Negative Heuristic:
Strategies within a research programme that guide scientists on what paths to pursue (positive) and what to avoid (negative) in their research.

Hard Core:
The fundamental assumptions of a scientific theory that are protected from falsification by a protective belt of auxiliary hypotheses.

Protective Belt:
A set of auxiliary hypotheses that can be adjusted to protect the hard core of a scientific theory from falsification.

Degenerative Research Programme:
A research programme that fails to predict novel facts and relies on ad hoc modifications to accommodate anomalies.

Progressive Research Programme:
A research programme that successfully predicts novel facts and contributes to scientific progress.

Anything Goes:
Paul Feyerabend’s idea that there are no universal methodological rules in science, advocating for methodological pluralism and freedom in scientific practice.

Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge:
Feyerabend’s theory that rejects the notion of a single scientific method, promoting the idea that scientific progress can arise from diverse and unconventional approaches.

Sokal Hoax:
An event where physicist Alan Sokal submitted a nonsensical article to a cultural studies journal to critique the lack of rigor in postmodern critiques of science.

The Scientific Method:
A systematic approach to inquiry based on empirical observation, experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses.
Persons

Thomas Kuhn:
A philosopher of science known for his theory of scientific revolutions and the concept of paradigms.

The Late Wittgenstein:
Philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein in his later works, emphasizing the idea of language games and the social nature of language.

Imre Lakatos:
A philosopher of science who proposed the methodology of scientific research programmes, combining elements of Popper’s and Kuhn’s theories.

Karl Popper:
A philosopher known for his principle of falsifiability as a criterion for scientific demarcation and his critical rationalism.

Paul Feyerabend:
A philosopher who argued against methodological monism in science, advocating for methodological pluralism with his concept of “anything goes.”

Alan Sokal:
A physicist who exposed the shortcomings of postmodern critiques of science through the Sokal Hoax.