LECTURE 2

Question 1

Correspondence Theory of Truth

Answer 1

The correspondence theory of truth is the idea that a statement or belief is true if it accurately reflects or corresponds to reality or facts. In other words, a belief is true if it matches the way things actually are.

Question 2

Truth and Knowledge

Answer 2

The sentence means that while a belief must be true to be considered knowledge, truth alone is not enough. For a belief to qualify as knowledge, it must also be justified or supported by adequate evidence or reasons. This emphasizes the “justified true belief” theory of knowledge, which requires that a belief be true, believed, and justified.

Question 3

Epistemology and Ontology

Answer 3

Epistemology: is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge. It deals with questions about what knowledge is, how it is acquired, and how we can be certain of what we know.

Ontology: is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature of being, existence, and reality. It deals with questions about what entities exist and how they can be grouped and related within a hierarchy.

Question 4

Plato as a Rationalist and Aristotle as an Empiricist

Answer 4

Plato was seen as a rationalist because he believed that knowledge is innate and can be discovered through reason and intellectual insight, independent of sensory experience.

Aristotle was seen as an empiricist because he emphasized the role of sensory experience and observation in acquiring knowledge. He believed that knowledge begins with empirical observations, which are then processed by reason

Question 5

Aristotle as a Rationalist

Answer 5

Aristotle can also be seen as a rationalist because he believed in the importance of logical reasoning and theoretical understanding in forming knowledge. He is considered the founding father of Formal logic (the science of reason and proof). While he valued empirical observation, he also stressed the necessity of rational analysis and the use of logic to understand the world. He said logic is at the heart of science.

Question 6

Ontologies of Heraclitus and Parmenides

Answer 6

Heraclitus: Believed that the fundamental nature of reality is change; everything is in a constant state of flux, and nothing remains the same.

Parmenides: Believed that reality is unchanging and that all change is an illusion. According to him, being is one, unchanging, and eternal

Question 6

Metaphysics

Answer 6

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that explores the fundamental nature of reality, including concepts such as existence, being, causality, time, and space. It seeks to understand what there is and what it is like.

Question 6

The Socratic Method

Answer 6

The Socratic method is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue that uses questioning to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presumptions. It involves asking and answering questions to stimulate deeper understanding and insight.

Question 7

Plato’s Alignment with Heraclitus and Parmenides

Answer 7

Heraclitus: Plato follows Heraclitus in acknowledging that the sensory world is in a state of constant change.

Parmenides: Plato follows Parmenides in believing that there is a higher realm of eternal, unchanging forms or ideas, which are the true reality.

Question 8

The Allegory of the Cave

Answer 8

The Allegory of the Cave describes prisoners who have been chained inside a dark cave all their lives, facing a blank wall. They see shadows cast by objects behind them, and these shadows are their reality. When one prisoner is freed and exposed to the outside world, he realizes that the shadows are just reflections of real objects and experiences enlightenment. The allegory illustrates the difference between the world of appearances (shadows) and the world of reality (outside the cave), and the philosopher’s journey to knowledge and understanding.

Question 9

Aristotle and Nativism

Answer 9

Aristotle is not a nativist. He believed that people are born as blank slates (tabula rasa) and that all knowledge comes from experience and sensory perception, which are then processed by the intellect.

Question 9

Plato’s Nativism

Answer 9

Plato’s nativism is the idea that certain knowledge is innate and present in the human mind from birth. He believed that learning is a process of recollecting knowledge that the soul already possesses.

Question 10

Plato’s ‘Learning is Remembering’

Answer 10

Plato means that the process of learning is essentially the process of recollecting knowledge that the soul already knows from before birth. This is based on his belief in the pre-existence of the soul and its familiarity with the forms.

Question 11

Socrates in Plato’s Meno

Answer 11

In Plato’s Meno, Socrates tries to prove that virtue can be taught and that knowledge is recollection. He uses a slave boy to demonstrate that the boy can solve a geometry problem through questioning, suggesting that the boy already possessed the knowledge and merely needed to recall it.

Question 12

Aristotle’s Peripatetic Axiom

Answer 12

The Peripatetic Axiom states that nothing is in the intellect that was not first in the senses. This means that all knowledge begins with sensory experience

Question 13

Aristotle’s Definition of Science

Answer 13

According to Aristotle, science is the systematic body of knowledge that seeks to understand the principles and causes of things. It involves the use of observation, classification, and logical reasoning to uncover the truths about the natural world.

Question 14

Syllogism

Answer 14

A syllogism is a form of logical reasoning where a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed premises. Example:
* Premise 1: All mammals are warm-blooded.
* Premise 2: All whales are mammals.
* Conclusion: Therefore, all whales are warm-blooded.

Question 15

Induction vs. Deduction

Answer 15

Induction: A method of reasoning that involves moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories. It is probabilistic and open to revision.

Deduction: A method of reasoning that involves drawing a specific conclusion from general premises or principles. It is logical and certain, provided the premises are true.

Question 16

Personal Philosophy: Induction or Deduction

Answer 16

The principle best applied to personal philosophy depends on the individual’s approach to knowledge. For example, if someone values empirical evidence and forms general conclusions based on observations, induction would be most suitable. Conversely, if they rely on logical analysis from established principles, deduction would be best.

Question 17

Foundation Principles for Aristotle’s Scientific Knowledge

Answer 17

• Empiricism: The principle that knowledge comes from sensory experience.
• Logic: The use of reasoning to process and organize information.
• Observation and Classification: Systematically observing and categorizing the natural world.

Question 18

Induction Problem

Answer 18

The induction problem, famously articulated by David Hume, questions the justification for using past experiences to predict future events. It highlights the challenge of justifying inductive reasoning, as it assumes that the future will resemble the past without logical certainty.

Question 19

Nous

Answer 19

Nous is a Greek term often translated as “intellect” or “mind.” In Aristotle’s philosophy, it refers to the intellectual faculty that apprehends first principles and necessary truths directly, without relying on sensory experience.

Question 20

Example of Aristotle’s Four Causes Doctrine

Answer 20

• Material Cause: The substance from which a thing is made (e.g., the wood of a table).
• Formal Cause: The form or essence of a thing (e.g., the design of the table).
• Efficient Cause: The agent or process that brings a thing into being (e.g., the carpenter who makes the table).
• Final Cause: The purpose or function of a thing (e.g., the table’s purpose is to hold items).

Question 21

Criticisms of Aristotle’s Philosophy

Answer 21

• Overemphasis on empirical observation, potentially limiting understanding of abstract concepts.
• Reliance on fixed categories and classifications, which may not accommodate the fluidity and complexity of nature.
• The belief in teleology (purpose-driven processes) in nature, which modern science often finds problematic.

Question 22

Important Concepts

Answer 22

• Justified True Belief: A traditional definition of knowledge, which holds that to know something, a person must believe it, it must be true, and there must be sufficient justification for the belief.
• Empiricism: The theory that all knowledge originates from sensory experience.
• Rationalism: The theory that reason and intellect are the primary sources of knowledge.
• Epistemology: The study of knowledge and justified belief.
• Ontology: The study of being and existence.
• Metaphysics: The study of the fundamental nature of reality.
• Nativism: The belief that certain knowledge is innate.
• Allegory of the Cave: Plato’s metaphor for the process of enlightenment and the distinction between the world of appearances and the world of reality.
• Peripatetic Axiom: Aristotle’s principle that knowledge begins with sensory experience.
• Syllogism: A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.
• Induction: Reasoning from specific observations to general conclusions.
• Deduction: Reasoning from general principles to specific conclusions.
• Nous: Intellect or mind, particularly in the sense of apprehending first principles.
• Four Causes Doctrine: Aristotle’s framework for explaining why things exist or happen (material, formal, efficient, and final causes).
• Induction Problem: The philosophical issue of justifying inductive reasoning.

Question 23

Important Individuals

Answer 23

• Heraclitus (600 – 540 BC): Pre-Socratic philosopher who believed in the constant flux and change of the universe.
• Parmenides (510 – 440 BC): Pre-Socratic philosopher who argued that reality is unchanging and that change is an illusion.
• Protagoras (490 – 420 BC): Sophist philosopher who claimed that “man is the measure of all things,” emphasizing the relativity of truth.
• Socrates (470 – 399 BC): Classical Greek philosopher who used questioning to explore ethical concepts and seek truth.
• Plato (427 – 347 BC): Student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle, known for his theory of forms and the Allegory of the Cave.
• Aristotle (384 – 322 BC): Student of Plato and tutor of Alexander the Great, known for his empirical approach to knowledge and development of formal logic.