Lecture 7 Pt. 4 Flashcards
race
a socially constructed category of people who share biologically transmitted traits that a society considers significant, such as skin color, facial features, and hair texture
- while physical variations emerged due to geographic adaptation and migration, all humans belong to the same biological species
- race, however, is a social concept, not a purely biological one, as its meaning varies across societies and time
ethnicity
unlike race, is based on shared cultural heritage, including common ancestry, language, and religion
- it is also socially constructed and can change over time
- ethnic identity can be fluid, with individuals emphasizing or downplaying their heritage depending on context
minority
a group set apart due to race or ethnicity and often experiences social subordination
- in the U.S., racial and ethnic minorities are growing, with projections indicating that by 2044, they will form the majority population
prejudice
prejudice is an unfair generalization about an entire group of people, often based on little or no evidence
- it can target various social categories, limiting opportunities and reinforcing stereotypes
- prejudice exists across different groups, including minorities stereotyping others
measuring prejudice
one way to measure prejudice is the social distance scale, developed by Emory Bogardus
- it assesses how closely individuals are willing to associate with different racial and ethnic groups
- studies show that over time, social acceptance has increased, though some prejudice remains, particularly against Arabs and Muslims post-9/11
sources of prejudice
- scapegoat theory: frustrated individuals blame minorities for their problems
- authoritarian personality theory: prejudiced individuals have rigid, hierarchical views of society
- culture theory: prejudice is ingrained in society and learned by all
- conflict theory: prejudice benefits the powerful by dividing groups and maintaining social inequality
discrimination
the unequal treatment of different groups and is closely related to prejudice
- while prejudice refers to attitudes, discrimination involves actions
- it can be positive (giving special advantages) or negative (creating obstacles) and can range from subtle biases to extreme exclusion
the cycle of prejudice and discrimination
- prejudice and discrimination begin, often due to ethnocentrism or economic motives
- social disadvantage follows, as minorities are pushed into lower-status positions
- this disadvantage is mistaken for innate inferiority, justifying further prejudice and discrimination
majority and minority: patterns of interaction
sociologists identify four patterns of racial and ethnic interaction in society: pluralism, assimilation, segregation, and genocide
pluralism
exists when different racial and ethnic groups maintain their cultural distinctiveness while having equal social standing
- the U.S. has elements of pluralism, such as ethnic neighborhoods and cultural media, but true pluralism is limited due to social inequalities and pressure to assimilate
assimilation
the process where minorities adopt the dominant culture’s customs, language, and values, often as a way to gain social mobility and avoid discrimination
- however, multiculturalists criticize assimilation because it places the burden of change on minorities
- while cultural traits can be altered, racial traits persist unless intermarriage (miscegenation) occurs
segregation
involves the physical and social separation of racial or ethnic groups
- it can be voluntary (e.g., religious communities like the Amish) but is often imposed by dominant groups, historically seen in laws enforcing racial separation
- though legal segregation has been reduced, de facto segregation remains through racially divided neighborhoods and schools
- extreme segregation, known as hypersegregation, leaves some minority groups with little contact outside their communities
genocide
the systematic extermination of one group by another
- examples include the Holocaust, the Armenian Genocide, and mass killings in Rwanda and Cambodia
- the U.S. has a history of genocide, particularly in the treatment of Native Americans
- while pluralism and assimilation are often seen as positive social patterns, segregation and genocide highlight historical and ongoing racial inequalities
functions of schooling
- socialization: schools teach basic skills, specialized knowledge, and cultural values, such as patriotism and competition
- cultural innovation: universities drive societal progress through research in science, humanities, and the arts
- social integration: education unites diverse populations by instilling shared norms and values
- social placement: schools promote meritocracy by identifying talent and enabling upward mobility
- latent functions: education provides childcare, keeps young people occupied, fosters social connections, and aids career networking
schooling and social interaction
symbolic-interaction theory highlights how daily interactions shape reality, particularly through stereotypes in education
self-fulfilling prophecy
expectations influence behavior, making beliefs become reality
- Jane Elliott’s 1968 classroom experiment demonstrated this when she divided students by eye color, telling them one group was superior
- the “superior” students excelled, while the “inferior” ones underperformed
- this experiment illustrated how societal stereotypes, especially about race, impact academic performance and self-perception, reinforcing inequality
schooling and social inequality
the social-conflict theory explains how schooling perpetuates social inequality by reinforcing existing class divisions and cultural norms
- it argues that education serves as a means of social control, shaping individuals to accept authority and societal structures
- standardized testing and school tracking contribute to this inequality by favoring privileged students and limiting opportunities for disadvantaged ones
- ultimately, schooling transforms social privilege into personal merit, reinforcing systemic inequality rather than eliminating it
problems in schools
discipline, violence, student passivity, and high dropout rates
- bureaucracy undermines education, leading to rigid expectations, limited student responsibility, and ineffective teaching methods
- violence in schools, including deadly shootings, has led to strict policies, raising concerns about safety and privacy
- college classrooms also suffer from passive learning norms
- academic performance remains a concern, with declining SAT scores, high functional illiteracy, and poor global rankings in science and math
- despite some improvements, such as increased course rigor and lower dropout rates, issues persist
- grade inflation has become widespread, making it harder to assess student capabilities accurately
- experts suggest reforms to improve teaching quality, reduce bureaucracy, and raise academic standards
