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psych 304 > lecture 7: emotional development > Flashcards

lecture 7: emotional development Flashcards

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1
Q

what are emotions (defintion)

A

combo of physiological and cognitive responses to thoughts or experience

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2
Q

what are emotions and how it manifests (factors etc)

A

nural response
physiologic factors
subjective feelings
emotional expression
urge to take action

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3
Q

explain the scared emotion in home alone and how they are physiologic

A

heart racing
nausea

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4
Q

explain how being scared emotions in home alone are a subjective feeling

A

recognition of dagner
feeling of fear

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5
Q

explain the emotional expression of being scared in home alone

A

eyes wide
eyebrows raised
mouth pulled back

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6
Q

explain the urge for action in home alone when kid is scared

A

lock the door
run away
defend home

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7
Q

explain the neurological expression of fear

A

amygdala activation
release of cortisol and adrenaline

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8
Q

what is the discrete emotions theory

A

neurological and biological symtems have evolved to allow humans to experience and express a set of basic emotions
=emotions are innate

basic emotions are important for survival and communication
emotional responses are largely automatic

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9
Q

true or false: in the discrete emotions theory, emotions are innate

A

true

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10
Q

what are 6 basic emotions

A

happiness
fear
anger
sadness
digust
surprise

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11
Q

true or false: rage is a basic emotion

A

false, anger is

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12
Q

according to the discrete emotion theory, basic emotions are important for what

A

survival and communication

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13
Q

according to the discrete emotions theory, are emotional responses controlled or automatic

A

largely automatic

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14
Q

what is the evidence for discrete emotions thero y

A

basic emotions are universal across cultures
basic emotions are present form infance

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15
Q

true or false: the other emotions beyond the basic ones are culturally universal

A

false, other emotions develop layer and are not culturally universal

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16
Q

the other emotions beyong the basic ones are a variation of what

A

other emotions are varitation in intensity of basic emotions

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17
Q

explain how other emotions are varitation in intensity of basic emotions

A

higher level anger=rage
low level anger=annoyance

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18
Q

other emotions beyond the basic ones are 2 things, what are they

A

variation in intensity of basic emotions
combination of basic emotions

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19
Q

explain how emotions can be a combination of basic emotions

A

anger and sadness = betrayal/dissapointment

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20
Q

how do you know what a baby is feeling (for testing)

A

systems of coding facial cues have been developped to make interpretations of infants emotions more objetcive

=link particular facial expressions and facial muscles movements with particular emotions

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21
Q

explain how hapiness is expressed in infance

A

smilin
raised cheeks
eyes squinting

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22
Q

explain how fear is expressed in infancy

A

eyes wide open
brows raised in the middle making a triangle shape
corners of mouth pulled back into grimmace

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23
Q

explain how anger is expressed in infacy

A

strongly furrowed brow that comes down to the center
open square-shaped mouth, sometimes baring teeth
flared nostrils

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24
Q

smilin
raised cheeks
eyes squinting

are signs of what emotion in infancy

A

hapiness

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25
Q

eyes wide open
brows raised in the middle making a triangle shape
corners of mouth pulled back into grimmace

are signs of what emotion in infancy

A

fear

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26
Q

strongly furrowed brow that comes down to the center
open square-shaped mouth, sometimes baring teeth
flared nostrils

are signs of what emotion in infacy

A

anger

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27
Q

explain how sadness is expressed in infancy

A

downturned corners of the mouth, lips pushed togetber and possibly trembling
slightly furrowed brow

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28
Q

explain how surprise is expressed in infancy

A

eyes wide open
eyebows raised into arches
mouth open in a round O shape

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29
Q

explain how disgust is expressed in infancy

A

nose crinkled and nostrils flared
mouth open wide with lips pulled back

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30
Q

downturned corners of the mouth, lips pushed togetber and possibly trembling
slightly furrowed brow

is evidence of what emotion in infancy

A

sadness

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31
Q

eyes wide open
eyebows raised into arches
mouth open in a round O shape

are evidence of what emotion in infancy

A

surprise

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32
Q

nose crinkled and nostrils flared
mouth open wide with lips pulled back

is evidence of what emotion in infancy

A

disgust

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33
Q

from birth, infants experience 2 general emotional states, what are they

A

positive: indicated by approach behavior
negative/distress, indicated by withdrawl behavior

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34
Q

from birth, infants experience how many general emotional states

A

2

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35
Q

how is the positive emotional state indicated in infancy

A

indicated by approach behabior

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36
Q

how is negative emotional state/ distress indicated in infancy

A

withdrawal behabior

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37
Q

true or false: basic emotions emerge in a predicle sequence over the first year of life

A

true

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38
Q

expkain how hapiness is adaptive

A

adaptive because motivates us to approach situations that are likely to increase chances of survival

helps bond with parents

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39
Q

how is hapiness expressed from birth

A

smiles are reflexive and evoked by biological state
(ex: been satiated or during sleep)

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40
Q

explain how hapiness is expressed at 2-3 months

A

social smile emerges
(usually in itneractions with parents
promote care from caregviers and fosters bonding)

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41
Q

what age does the social smile emerge

A

2-3 months

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42
Q

at 2,3 months, the social smile emerges usually in interactions with who

A

parents

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43
Q

explain how hapiness is expressed at 5 months

A

infants first laugh

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44
Q

when do infants first laugh

A

5 months

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45
Q

true or false: what makes a child smile and laugh is predetermined

A

false, it changes with cognitive developement

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46
Q

explain how what makes children smile and laiugh changes with cognitvie developmetn

A

at 5 months old, laugh at bodiliy noses but 4 year olds laugh at jokes

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47
Q

explain how anger is adaptive

A

because helps us defend outselves against threats to overcome obstacles to our goals

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48
Q

at what age do infants begin to express anger

A

4 months

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49
Q

how is anger expressed at 4 months

A

infants begin to express anger

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50
Q

true or false, at 4 months infants start to experss anger and the level remains the same,

A

false, steadily increases in internsity over next year

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51
Q

explain how anger is expressed at 24 months

A

peak in tendency to react with anger
tantrums in terrible twos
frequence of anger declines

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52
Q

at what age is there a peak in tendency to react with anger

A

24 months

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53
Q

explain whjy the frequency of anger declines after 24 months

A

due to greater ability to express self with language and emotion regulation skills

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54
Q

as children get older, what are they better able to do with their anger

A

are better able to match anger to situation

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55
Q

explain how as children get older they are better able to match anger to situation

A

angrier is hurtful action was intentional vs unintentional

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56
Q

explain how fear is adaptive

A

expressions of fear are adaptive because elicit protection from danger from caregivers

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57
Q

are what age do children begin to express fear

A

7 months

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58
Q

how is fear expressed at 7 months

A

infants begin to express fear

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59
Q

at wht age does the fear of strangers and seperation anxiety emergy

A

8 months

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60
Q

how is fear expressed at 8 months

A

fear of strangers and sepeation anxiety emerges

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61
Q

when does sepetation anxiety decline in infancy

A

around 15 months of age

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62
Q

true or false: what scares children changes with cognitvie devlipmenent and explain

A

true

3-5 year old: fear imaginary creatures
5-6: fear animals and the dark
7 plus: fears related to everyday sitatuons (tests, pleasing parents)

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63
Q

what do children fear at 3-5 years old

A

imaginary creatures

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64
Q

what do children fear at 5-6 years old,

A

animals and the dark

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65
Q

what do children fwar at 7 plus

A

fears related to everyday situations (test, pleasing parents)

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66
Q

explain how surprise is adaptvie

A

because indicates that the world is working contrary to expectations and is thus important for learning

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67
Q

what age do babies begin to express surprise

A

6 months

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68
Q

which emotion does this match with: because indicates that the world is working contrary to expectations and is thus important for learning

A

surprise

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69
Q

which emotion does this match with :
expressions of fear are adaptive because elicit protection from danger from caregivers

A

fear

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70
Q

which emotions does this match with :
because helps us defend outselves against threats to overcome obstacles to our goals

A

anger

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71
Q

which emotion does this match with : adaptive because motivates us to approach situations that are likely to increase chances of survival

helps bond with parents

A

hapiness

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72
Q

explain how sadness is adaptive

A

because ellicits care and comfort from caregiver in reaction to a loss

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73
Q

which emotion does this math with :
because ellicits care and comfort from caregiver in reaction to a loss

A

sandess

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74
Q

sadnes is often elicited in similar situations to what other basic emotion

A

anger

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75
Q

when does sadness emergy

A

1st year

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76
Q

sadness emerges when what phenomenon is acquired

A

once object permance has been acquired

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77
Q

explain how sadness emerges once object permance has been acquired

A

beacuse need the concept that thing they loss still needs to exist for it to be considered a loss

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78
Q

in the 1st year, sandess usually emerges in reaction to what

A

being sepreated from parents

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79
Q

true or fals: crying is not indicative of sadness in babies

A

true it just means distress

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80
Q

sadness is a marker of what

A

loss

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81
Q

explain how disgust is adaptive

A

because helps us avoid potential poisions or bacteria

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82
Q

which emotion does this match with:
because helps us avoid potential poisions or bacteria

A

disgust

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83
Q

when disgust emerge

A

in the 1st years

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84
Q

children learn what to react to with disgust based on what

A

parents reactions

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85
Q

first expressions of disgust in children are often directed towards what

A

food

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86
Q

what are

A
87
Q

what are self concious emotions

A

emotions that emerge once

1) a child has a self seperate from other people (emerges at 18months)

2) an appreciation of what adults expect of them

88
Q

at what age does a child have a sense of self seperate from other people

A

18 months

89
Q

what are some self councious emotions

A

guilt, shame, embarassement, pride, empathy

90
Q

at what age do self councious emotions usually emerge

A

around 2 years old

91
Q

what influecnes the frequency and type of self concious emotions that are most likely to be experienced

A

culture

92
Q

cuulture influences self councious emotions how

A

influences the frequency and type of self concious emotions that are most likely to be experienced

93
Q

how do individualistic cultures are most likely to experience what self concnous emotion

A

more likely to experience pride

94
Q

how do collectivistic cultures are most likely to experience what self concnous emotion

A

more likely to experience guilt and shame

95
Q

explain why individualistic cultures are most likely to experience [pride

A

because they focus on being unique and promiting self accomplishments

96
Q

explain why collectivistic cultures are most likely to experience guit and shame

A

because those cultures are about group harmoney and abinding by social nor,s

97
Q

true or false: guilt and shame are often elleicited by similar situations

A

true

98
Q

true or false: guilt and shame are essentially the same emotion

A

false, they are elicited by similar situations but are dsitinc emotional reactions

99
Q

true or false: guilt and shame are essentially the same emotion

A

false, they are elicited by similar situations but are dsitinc emotional reactionsd

100
Q

define guilt

A

feelings of regret about ones behavior associated with desire to fix the consequences of that behavior

101
Q

define shame

A

self focused feeling of personal failure associated with desire to hide

102
Q

generally guilt is healthier than shame or vice versa

A

guilt is healther

103
Q

at what are can guilt and shame be distinguished

A

2 years of age

104
Q

when 2 year olds play with a doll that has been rigged so that one lef falls off during play, they show diff reactions

a child exhibiting shame will do what

A

didny try to fix the doll, avoided the adult and delayed telling them about the ‘accident’

105
Q

when 2 year olds play with a doll that has been rigged so that one lef falls off during play, they show diff reactions

a child exhibiting GUILT will do what

A

trying to fix the doll and quickly told the adult about the ‘accident’

106
Q

what influences whether a child will feel guilt or shame

A

parental reatcions to childrens actions influence which emotion a child experiences

107
Q

a child is more likely to feel guilt if a parent emphasized what

A

the :badness of the ACTION”

108
Q

a child is more likely to feel shame if a parent emphasized what

A

the badness of the CHILD

109
Q

if a parent emphasizes the badness of a child, the child is more likely to feel what emotion

A

shame

110
Q

if a parent emphasizes the badness of an action, the child is more likely to feel what emotion

A

guilt

111
Q

if a parent emphasizes the badness of a child, what will they say

A

youre a bad boy

112
Q

if a parent emphasizes the badness of an action, what will they say

A

you did a bad thing

113
Q

basic emotions are biologically based or situational based

A

biologicallt based

114
Q

how many universal emotions basic

A

6 (hapiness, fear, anger, sadness, surpise and digust)

115
Q

true or false: emotions develop in a predictable sequence

A

true

116
Q

all basic emotions are presented by the end of what year

A

first years

117
Q

self concnious emotions develop around 2 yeras old once an infant has a sense of what

A

self

118
Q

identifying emotions in adults faces comes before or after identifying own emotions

A

before

119
Q

true or false: there is rudimentary recgonition of others emotions emerges later in life

A

false, very early in life

120
Q

what age can a child distinguish facial expressions of happiness, surprise and ager

A

3 months old

121
Q

true or false, at 4 months old a child distinguish facial expressions of happiness, surprise and ager

A

false, 3

122
Q

true or false, at 3 months old a child distinguish facial expressions of happiness, surprise and disgust

A

false, anger

123
Q

explain how they showed that children at 3 months can distinguish between facial expressions of happiness, surprise and anger

A

they are habituated to happy faces and then dishabituate when presented with a picture of a surprised face

124
Q

at age age can a child distinguish expressions of fear and sadness

A

7 months old

125
Q

what is social referencing

A

use of parents facial expression and tone of voice to decide how to deal with novel/ambiguous

126
Q

being attuned to parents emotions enables what in children

A

social referencing

127
Q

explain social refecering and visual cliff (general)

A

if mom is happy, baby is more likely to cross over a visual cliff

look to mom using her facial expression to see if its safe

128
Q

if parents looked scared, how many babies crossed the visual cliff

A

0%

129
Q

if parents looked HAPPY, how many babies crossed the visual cliff

A

75%

130
Q

if parents looked angry, how many babies crossed the visual cliff

A

6%

131
Q

if parents looked sad, how many babies crossed the visual cliff

A

33%

132
Q

what does the social referencing and the visual cliff demonstrate (2)

A

1) children rely on parents reaction to figure out how to react to a situation themselves (social referencing)

2) children can tell disgintusish between emotional expressions

133
Q

at what age is there a rudimentary ability to identify and label expressions of basic emotions in others

A

3 years old

134
Q

at what age to children begin to understand that a persons facial expressions do not necessarily match what they’re really feeling

A

4-6 years

135
Q

at 4-6 years old, children begin to understand that a persons facial expressions don’t necessary match what

A

what theyre feeling

136
Q

what study did they do to show if a child can understand real vs fake emotions and what were rsults

A

children hear a story about a child forgetting her fave toy for a sleepover but that she doesn’t want to show how she feels
asked “how does the child feel” and “what will be the expression on her face”

5 year olds know that the child will be sad but will be showing happiness on her face

3 year okds think that the child will be showing sadness

137
Q

improvement in understanding false emotions is due to what

A

greater understanding of display rules

138
Q

what are display rules and what are they good for

A

social norms about when, where and how much one should show emotions and which emotions are appro[irate in a given context

good for understanding false emotions and crucial for successful social interactions

139
Q

true or false: once children understand that emotions can be faked, they can fake emotions themselves

A

true

140
Q

what was the study they did to show that once children understand that emotions can be faked they can fake it themselves

A

4,6 and 8 years olds shown 3 boxes
1) attractive toy
2) unattractive toy
3) no gift

instructured to trick the experiemnter into thinking that a box without an attractive toy actually has an attractive toy

141
Q

what were the rsults of the faking emotions study

A

4 year old had a hard time faking emotions (showed more disappointment)

ability to fake emotions increased with age (8 year olds better than 6 year olds)

142
Q

what didf the faking emotions study show

A

that children experience a rapid increase in understanding and implementing display rules in middle childhood

143
Q

what are the 2 main reasons why faking emotions improves

A

cognitive development and greater understnaind of cultural norms

144
Q

true or false; different cultures have different display reules and explain

A

true
individualistic cultures are more generally more emotionally expressive than collectivist cultures

145
Q

true or false: there is no different norms in social displays for boys and girls and exmaplain

A

false, there are different norms
anger is more acceptable for boys to show than girls

146
Q

what is emotion regulation

A

set of concious and unconcious processes used to manage emotional experiences and expressions

147
Q

true or false: emotion regulation develops fast

A

false, gradually during childhood

148
Q

what is coregulation

A

parents regulate infants distress through soothing or distraction

149
Q

why is coregulation necessart

A

because infants cannot regulate their own emotions

150
Q

at what age do infants show rudimentary emotion regulation skills

A

5 months old

151
Q

what do 5 months old do that show they have a rudimentary emotional regulation skills

A

self comforting behaviors
self-distraction

152
Q

what is self comforting behaviros

A

repetivie actions that create a mildly positive sensative

153
Q

what is self distraction

A

looking away from upsetting stimulus

154
Q

over the course of the first few years of life, children rely more on self comforting behaviors or self distraction to regulate their emotions

A

self distraction
ex: in preschool, children rely on play as a distraction

155
Q

besides self comforting and self distraction, older children also rely on what for emotion regulation

A

cognitive strategies and problem solving

156
Q

what are the 3 reasons emotions regulation improves

A

1) motor dev
2) cognitive dev
3) increased parental expectation that child should be able to manage their emotional arousal
=children internalise this expectation and comply

157
Q

explain hoe motor dev affects emotional regulation

A

greater ability to cotnrol bodily movements enables self-soothing and distraction in infancy

158
Q

explain how cognitive dev affects emotional regulation

A

maturation of frontal lobes allows for greater ability to manage attention and inhibit behavior

159
Q

children that have good emotion regulation skills have what 3 things

A

1) have higher well-being
2) are more socially skilled and are linked better by their peers and teacher (poor regulation put kids at risk for bullying(
3) do better in school

160
Q

true or false: children that have good enotion regulation skills do bette in school

A

true

161
Q

rudimentary emotional recognition begins in..

A

early infancy

162
Q

emotional recognition enables what

A

social referencing

163
Q

age 3, children being to labvel emotions in themselves or others

A

otehrs

164
Q

ages 4-6, children child to understand what about emotional expressions

A

dont necesarily match how someone actually feels

165
Q

children’s ability to regulate emotions improves over the course of childhood and initially they rely on BLANK but then rely on BLANK

A

initually rely on coregulation but begining at 5 months are able to engate in some self regulation

166
Q

improvements in self regulation are due to what 3 basic reasons

A

motor dev
cognitive deev
chagnes in parental expressions

167
Q

emotion regulation skills have massive consequences for childrens what 3 areas

A

pyschological
social
academic well being

168
Q

true or false: friends play a huge role in children emotional dev

A

false, family does, especially paresnts

169
Q

parents expression of emotions has a direct or indirect effect on emotional dev

A

indirect

170
Q

parents reactions to children emotions have a direct or indirect effect on emotional dev

A

direct

171
Q

parents emotional expression serve as what

A

a model of wehn and how to express emotions

172
Q

children who grow up with paresnts that tend to not show emotions tend to : (3)

A

1) not express emotions themsekves (learn to see emotions as bad)
2) have trouble identifying and understanding emotions in self and others
3) struggle with regulating intense emotions

173
Q

children that grow up with parents taht express a high level of positive emotions tend to (3)

A

express more positive emotions themselves
2) be well adjusted
3) be socially skilled

174
Q

children that grow up with parents that express a high level of negative emotions tend to (3)

A

1) experience and express more negative emotions themselves
2) be less socially competent (hostile attitubution bias if growin gup with angry parents)
3) have poorer emotion regulation skills

175
Q

parents reaction to their children emotions directly influence what

A

children emotional development

176
Q

what is mirroring

A

behaviours in which a parent reflects the emotions of their children back to them (conveyed to verbal and non verbal clues)

177
Q

contigent responding to infant (quick responsiveness to infants behavior) is also known as what

A

mirroring

178
Q

what is mirroring chracterized by

A

warmth

179
Q

give examples of mirroring

A

1) a baby looks upset and the parent also furrows their eyebrows and frowns

2) a child begins pouting over change in fam plans. fam wont be going to the park anymore. The parent says “you look sad. isee that you have tears in your eyes and your face is turning red. youre hunched over and staring at the ground”

3) a child feels very anxious about an upcoming test. the parent says “you seem worried and upset about the test. i sometimes feel the same way when i. have a big thing to do at work”

180
Q

what is mirroing important (2)

A

1) validates and normilzes the childs emotion
2) helpd child identify and undertand their emotions

181
Q

what is the still face paradigm

A

lab procedure in which a paernt goes through a repetitive sequeen with their child in which they:
2 min of play with infant
2 min still face (no reaction to infant)

182
Q

what is the reaction of babies in the still face paradign

A

infants quickly become distressed in reaction to the still-faec and this distress increases with each still face episode
(infants are attuned to parents emotions
distressed by parents doesnt react as expected (often engage in self distraction)

183
Q

what is emotional coaching

A

the use of discussion and other forms of isntructtion to teach children how to cope with, regulation and appropriately express emotions

184
Q

what is seen as “appropriate” in emotions depends on culture, true or false

A

true

185
Q

what are some explains of emotional coaching

A

1) you seem worried and upset about the test. lets walk through a real simple step that can get us going in the right direction

2) ik you are frustrated that ur sis took your toy but its not okay to pull her hair. That hurt her. when youre frustrated, its a good idea to take some time to cool down first before telling ur sister why youre frustrated lets take slow breaths together.

186
Q

supportive/sensitve reaction is characterized by what

A

mirroring and emotional coaching

187
Q

sypport/senstive reaction is an indeal way to reacti to childrens emotions why

A

validates the child emotion
helps child understand their emotions
fosters emotional regulation
accoaited with self resteem higher
fosters social competence
aossicaed with better persomance in school

188
Q

supportive/sensitive reactions involves what two aspects

A

mirroring and emotional coaching

189
Q

critical reactions involved what acpect

A

no mirroring or no emotional coaching

190
Q

dismissive reactives invovles wat 1.2 asoerc

A

coaching by no mirroring

191
Q

over validating reacions are involved i nwhat

A

mirror but no coaching

192
Q

mirroing and enotional coaching is undersand what type of catheogires

A

supportive/senotive

193
Q

no mirroring and no emotional coaching is under what parent preaction

A

critical

194
Q

coaching but no mirroring is under what parent reaction

A

dismissive

195
Q

mirroring but no coaching is unders what reaction

A

over validating

196
Q

what would a support parent raction look like for a child feeling axnious about the test

A

you seem worried i feel like that with a big thing at work. Lets walk thrgou ha real simple step that can get us going in the right directon

197
Q

what would a critical parent reaction look like for a child anxious about test

A

in angry tone, ‘wahats wrong with you, you alsoways get like this before a test and then you get a bad grade

198
Q

what would a dismissive parent reaction look like for a child anxious about a test

A

youre fine, theres no need to be nervous, youll just study and itll be okay

199
Q

what would a overvalidating parent reaction look like for a child anxious about a test

A

omg the test is nect week you nust be nervous i would be so nerves you ave so much materail to study where do we even begin?

200
Q

what are the 3 implications of lack of effective emotional reaction

A

parents who dismiss or cirticize communicate to the child that their feelings are not valid

parents who over validate their childrens reaction communicate to their children that emotions are over whelming and cant be managed

children who grew up with parents that habitually dismiss, criticize or over validate are likely to be less socially competent and less emotionally competent

201
Q

parents who dismiss or cirticize communicate to the child what

A

that their feelings are not valid

202
Q

parents who over validate their childrens reaction communicate to their children what

A

that emotions are over whelming and cant be managed

203
Q

children who grew up with parents that habitually dismiss, criticize or over validate are likely to be less BLANK

A

LESS socially competent and less emotionally competent

204
Q

what are te 4 main reasons parents reaction the way they do in relation to emotions

A

1) cultural differences
2) generational differences in norms for emotional expression
3) familt reactions to emotions when parents themsevles were children
4) parents mood and emotions in the moment

205
Q

explain how cultural differences explain why parents react in a certain way to emotions

A

emotional expression is more encouraged in independant vs interdependant cultures

reactions to specifc emotions differ by culture (ex: reactions to shame in independant culture vs colelctivistic culture)

extent to which parental reactions match cultural norms matter

206
Q

emotional expression is more encouraged in what types of culture

A

more encouraged in independant vs interdependant culture

207
Q

give an exmaple of reactions to specific emotions differ by culture

A

reactions to shame in independant vs collectivistic cultures

208
Q

give an example taht shows the extent to which parent reactions match cultural norms matter

A

dismissive parenting is not associated with poorer social comptetence in places where controlling emotional expression, rather than being expressive is valued.

209
Q

explain how family raections to emotions when parents themselves were children influence the way they react

A

becuse intergenerational transmission of emotional reactions and regualation

210
Q

explain how parents mood and emotions in the moment effect the way a child reactis

A

harder to be supportive if parent is having a bad day

211
Q

parents influence their childrens emotional development indirectly though what

A

their own emotional expression

212
Q

parents influence their childrens emotional development directly though what

A

use of mirroing and emotional coaching

213
Q

infants become very distressed or not distressed when parents do not react to them in still face paradigm

A

very distressed

214
Q

true or false: how a parent reacts to child emotion has important consequences for their pyschological social and academic wellbeing

A

true

psych 304 (10 decks)

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