Lecture 6 Flashcards
1
Q
Rhetorical force
A
- rhetoric in words and expressions have emotive meaning or rhetorical force, beyond the literal or dictionary meaning
- words can evoke different emotions and have different emotional meanings even if they have the same literal meaning
- the rhetorical force of words is psychologically compelling, but by itself, it does not establish anything and has no probative weight
- critical thinkers must be able to distinguish the argument contained in a passage from the rhetorical, the logical force from the psychological force
- go step by step to see how wrong one’s argument is - rhetoric is not commonly found in science journals as it carries no probative weight, scientists cannot rely on persuasive language to sell their findings
- rhetoric can weaken an argument, but it does not strengthen it either
- rhetorical word, psychological impact
- at best persuade, at worst is bias
Use analogize (logic) and whatever but doesn’t;t matter, graded on persuasion, statement, argument, premise, conclusion
- more influenced by emotion
2
Q
Rhetorical devices 1
(Euphemisms and dysphemisms)
A
The first category of rhetorical devices is comprised of individual words or short expressions used to convey a positive or negative tone. They are commonly referred to as slanters because of their ability to slant or sway the meaning of a statement
- euphemisms are neutral or positive expressions used in place of ones with negative associations
- “let go” or “severance of employment” - rejection letter is a rejection letter, by the way they wrote it (emotion) means something, helps you respect the company more - euphemisms can be used to hide wrongdoing but also have positive uses
- dysphemisms are expressions used to produce a negative effect or tone down positive associations
- “got the boot” or “fired like a dog” - negative emotion toward the company is received by the person fired - dysphemisms are often found when a speaker or writer tries to get an audience to dislike someone or something
- what is considered a euphemism or dysphemisms is subjective
- some facts are just plain repellent and neutral reporting of them may sound appalling
3
Q
Rhetorical devices
(Weaselers)
A
- weaselers are words or phases that help to protect a claim from criticism by weakening it or giving the claim’s author an escape plan
- common weaslers include “up to” (often used in advertising), “some”, and possibly”.
- “some people say that our product is the best on the market”
- euphemisms can sometimes be considered a type of weaseling that involves using nicer language to soften an unpleasant truth
- words that can wease can also bring important qualifications to a claim, but it’s important to assess the context and speaker to determine their intention
- some words, such as “perhaps”, and “may be” can be used to create insinuation without actually making a claim
- not every use of these words and phrases is a weaseling one, as they can also be used for legitimate reasons
4
Q
Rhetorical devices
(Downplayers)
A
- down players aim to make something or someone look less significant
- examples of downplayers: stereotypes, rhetorical comparisons, explanations, innuendo, words such as “merely”, “so-called”, quotation marks
- the use of conjunctions like “nevertheless”, “however”, “still” and “but” can also be used to downplay claims
- the context of a claim can determine whether it is a down player or not
- original statement: “I won first place in the competition”
- downplaying: “it was just a small competition, nothing major”
- downplay something using stereotyping, “oh you Russians can’t do this because you don’t have this” is bad - using downplayers in writing can add flair and interest but it’s important not to be overly influenced by them
- understanding the emotional and psychological aspects of language can help avoid being manipulated by writers or speakers
5
Q
Rhetorical devices 2
(Stereotype)
A
The next three rhetorical devices are based on untruthful assumptions. We often have to make assumptions in our everyday lives but these devices can become problematic when the assumptions are not credible.
Address logic - then check sources
- a stereotype is a simplified or exaggerated idea about a social group’s attributes that can be positive or negative
- stereotypes are unreliable characterizations of people and should not be relied upon to form opinions
- stereotypes come from various sources and are often supported by prejudices and group interests
-stereotypes can influence behaviour, such as the exposure to elderly people leading to slower walking and talking
- some stereotypes carry rhetorical force, but have no evidentiary or probative force
- using stereotypes that members of the group say about themselves does not make it okay for others to use them
6
Q
Rhetorical devices 2
(Innuendo)
A
Don’t try to say something unclear
- if its there say it
- if its not there don’t say it
- uses suggestion to say something negative about someone or something
“I’m not saying she cheated on the exam, but her grade was certainly a surprise”
- uses neutral or positive phrasing to make a derogatory statement
- relies on suggestion and implication, not on negative wording
- key to recognizing innuendo is that it depends on suggestion and implication
- in academia be direct
- anything you say can be used against you
7
Q
Rhetorical devices 2
(Loaded questions)
A
- implies something without saying it directly
- every question is based on assumptions
- have you stopped cheating on exams?
Use news outlets to practice for midterm
8
Q
Rhetorical devices 3
(Sarcasm)
A
Humour and a bit of exaggeration are part of our everyday speech. But they can also be used to sway opinions if the listener is not being careful
- ridicule and sarcasm are forms of vicious humour and ridicule
- ridicule is a powerful tool as most people don’t like to be laughed at
- laughing at someone or their position does not address any objections to that position - not adding any logic to the arguments
- ridicule can take the form of outright laughter, unrelated jokes, sarcastic language, or laughing at the person making the point
-in debates, the person who has the funniest lines and gets the most laughs may appear to win, but critical thinkers should be able to disguise between argumentation and entertainment
- there is nothing wrong wit using humor to make a valid point
- hyperbole is an exaggeration or overstatement used to express strong feelings or persuade
- examples of hyperbole are describing one’s parents as fascists, and saying nobody in a social group likes a particular demographic
- original statement: “this essay is difficult to write”
- hyperbole: “writing this essay is like trying to climb Mount Everest with no gear”
- hyperbole can be used to move listeners toward a lesser claim, even if they reject the exaggeration
- other rhetorical devices often involve hyperbole, such as dysphemisms and negative stereotyping
Live news is usually AI
9
Q
Rhetorical devices 4
A
- rhetorical definitions and explanations use language to express or elicit attitudes about a subject
- rhetorical definitions can stack the deck against a particular viewpoint by using charged language, while defining by example can slant a discussion if the examples are prejudicially chosen. E.g. defining abortion as murder
- rhetorical explanations use standard language to disguise their true purpose, which is to express or elicit an attitude
- an example of a rhetorical explanation is a letter to an editor that appears to provide an explanation of causation but is actually an attempt to express an opinion and evoke anger at affirmative action policies
- to avoid being swayed by these rhetorical devices, it is important to be aware of how language is being used to shape attitudes and perspectives
10
Q
Rhetorical devices 4
(Rhetorical analogies and misleading comparisons)
A
- Rhetorical analogies can make one thing appear better or worse than another, which can lead to changes in opinions without proper arguments
- stereotypes can be used to denigrate intellectuals or other groups
- comparisons can be misleading, such as vague comparisons, omitted important information, or using different standards
- if you can’t explain something in a simple way maybe you don’t understand it
- using an analogy helps more people understand a concept - comparisons should also consider the items being compared, whether they are comparable, and how they are expressed.
- comparisons expressed as averages can omit important details
- analogies help provide accessibility
11
Q
Proof surrogates and répétions
A
- proof surrogates are used to suggest evidence or authority for a claim without actually citing it
- examples of proof surrogates include using “informed sources say”, “it’s obvious that”, and “it’s clear to anyone who has thought the matter through carefully that.”
- speakers or writers may try to establish a personal connection with the audience by suggesting they belong to the same group
- other proof surrogates include “studies show” which doesn’t provide important information about the studies involved
- proof surrogate are not evidence or proof and should not be accepted as such until actual proof or evidence has been presented
- repetition is a commonly used rhetorical device to make the same point over and over again at every opportunity
- examples of repetition include propaganda, campaign signs, and advertising
- the technique can be effecting in dulling critical thinking and making a message seem more believable simply because it is heard repeatedly
- however, critical thinkers should remember that repetition is not a substitute for evidence and argument, and a claim is not more likely true simply because it has been repeated many times
12
Q
Persuasion through visual imagery
A
- images have a powerful effect on emotions, and advertisers and political campaigners use them to sell products or ideas
- the effectiveness of images in motivating behaviour is not fully understood
- adding the right music or sound to a video enhances its persuasive power
- a picture is not an argument, premise, or conclusion, but can be the basis of an argument and provide informational content
- the best défense against being swayed by “photographic rhetoric” is to focus on the informational content of the photograph or video, assuming it is not fraudulent
- reasonable people can disagree about the information provided by a visual, so focus on the information relative to the issue at hand
When presenting stuff - statement, premise, conclusion, and some visual stuff
If someone makes a graph it shoes that you know more by seeing it, makes more credible
13
Q
The extreme rhetoric of demagoguery
A
Anything that feeds off fear
Over dramatic
- demagoguery uses extreme rhetoric to propagate fake ideas and theories
- scapegoating, fear-mongering, false patriotism, appeal to emotion and etc.
- people divides people into us and them, with them being portrayed as suspicious, dangerous or repulsive
- demonizing induces loathing of someone or something by portraying it as evil
- fostering xenophobia is the fear or dislike of what is foreign or strange
- demagogues invariably try to stimulate fear, resentment and hatred
14
Q
Midterm
A
- What is the issue the author’s is presenting?
- What is their position (statement) on the issue? (Claim)
- State all the supporting arguments. Clearly state the premises and conclusion of each sub-argument, and state whether they are inductive or deductive (could be 10 marks) —— make bullet points, argument, premise, conclusion (if there is no conclusion say that)
- Choose the strongest argument presented by the author (explain your choice) - how do you evaluate arguments (not just spot them but also way them)
- State three logical weaknesses in the article that can affect its credibility. Why? (Strong claim)
