Lecture 5

Question 1

the Politics of sport

Answer 1

These comités have so much power

• international Olympic committee (IOC) : completely autonomous, been around for 130 years, never going away
• international federations (IFs) : create rulebook, eligibility, technical decisions, they make the important calls
• national Olympic committees (NOCs)
• world anti-doping agency (WADA) : cannot be sued, completely autonomous
• court of arbitration for sport (CAS)
• continental/regional governing bodies
• national governing bodies
• professional leagues
• amateur sports organizations
• local sports clubs and leagues
• special interest and advocacy groups
• sports event organizations

Question 2

Typology of international non-governmental sport organisations (INGSOs)

Answer 2

National/other
- solo sport bodies : PGA
-bodies of non-Olympic events : CGF
- stakeholder bodies : S 20

Continental/ Regional level
- team sports bodies : UEFA, EHF
- solo sports bodies : EAA, UEG
- bodies of Olympic/Paralympic events : EOC
- bodies of non-Olympic events : OCA, ANOCA
- informational relevance : EUPEA
- sports bodies : EPFL
- stakeholder bodies : FARE

Global level
- team sports bodies : FIFA, IHF
- solo sports bodies : FIS, IAAF
- bodies of Olympic/Paralympic events : IOC, IPC
- bodies of non-Olympic events : IWGA, FISU
- governing relevance : WADA, ICAS
- informational relevance : FIMS, ICSSPE
- sport bodies : ASOIF, FIFPro
- stakeholder bodies : supporters direct

Question 3

The claim and its source

Answer 3

• there are two aspects to assess credibility: claims and sources
• claims have varying degrees of credibility, e.g. a claim that ducks can communicate in Morse code is not credible while a claim that they mater for life is credible
• the credibility of a claim depends on the credibility of its source. A credible source makes a credible claim more likely to be true and vice versa.
• people vary in their credibility, e.g. a neighbour’s denial of bank robbery may seem credible until proven otherwise with evidence
• the credibility of a source can also change e.g. a knowledgeable friend’s credibility decreases if he stands to gain form the information he provides
• two questions should be asked about a clam: first, does the claim itself lack credibility, and second, does the source of the claim lack credibility.
• the first question is about the content of the claim and will be explained later
• the second question is about the credibility of the source
• a claim lacks credibility if it conflicts with our knowledge or other credible claims

Question 4

Assessing the content of the claim

Answer 4

• Claims can be accepted on their own but may conflict with personal observations or background knowledge. E.g. Drinking bleach can cure COVID-19
• personal observations are the most reliable source of information about the world but can also be flawed
• reasons for flawed observations can include factors such as tiredness, distraction, emotions, physical conditions, and observation skills
• beliefs. Hopes. Fears. And expectations can also affect observations. E.g. aliens built the pyramids in Egypt
• eyewitness testimony can be unreliable and is often the cause of wrongful convictions
• wishful thinking can also influence beliefs and judgements
• it is important to critically assess claims based on personal observations and background knowledge.

Question 5

The credibility of sources exercise

Answer 5

How would you assess a source?

Person vs organization?

Rank your criteria of assessment

Question 6

Rank sources

Answer 6

Evaluate the claim, evaluate the source

• peer-reviewed academic journals
• books published by academic presses
• research institutes
• official government reports
• reputable news outlets

-trade journals

• expert blogs
• mainstream magazines
• personal blogs or website
• open forums or social media
• Wikipedia

Question 7

The credibility of sources interested parties

Answer 7

• Credibility of sources is as important as credibility of claims
• certain sources of information can be automatically suspicious
• factors that influence credibility of a source include interested parties and disinterested parties
• interested parties (who stand to gain from our belief in a claim) should be viewed with more suspicion than disinterested parties
• a person who advocates for the purchase of gold, for example, may be a broker of precious metals or hired by such a broker to sell their product
• the rule of trusting disinterested parties before interested parties is crucial in critical thinking
• the importance of this rule will be revisited later in the text and in exercises

Question 8

The credibility of sources physical and other characteristics

Answer 8

• physical characteristics, such as eye contact, sweating, and nervous laughter, are widely used to judge a person’s credibility but are largely irrelevant and worthless in determining it
• example of biases: a study conducted by professor Lara Tiedens from Standford University Graduate School of Business found that being taller, louder, and more assertive can enhance a person’s credibility
• other irrelevant features that we sometimes use to judge a person’s credibility include gender, age, ethnicity, accent and mannerisms, as well as their clothes and occupation
• appearance, including looking into someone’s eyes, cannot be used to judge a person’s truthfulness, knowledge, or character
• even credible sources can make honest mistakes and sometimes, an interested party may exaggerate problems to benefit themselves
• accepting credible claims from doubtful sources or doubtful claims from credible sources can lead to trouble

Question 9

The credibility of sources expertise

Answer 9

Education, experience, accomplishments, reputation, and position are factors in determining a person’s expertise

• education is important, but formal education is not the only criterion
• relevant experience is key in determining expertise
• accomplishments are important if they are related to the question at hand
• reputation is important but should be evaluated in context
• the reputation among experts in the same field is the most valuable
• position and title can indicate a person’s expertise but are not the only factors
• information from interested parties should be viewed with suspicion
• a persons reputation among other experts is the most valuable

Question 10

Credibility and the news media

Answer 10

• consumption of news on the web continues to increase, but confidence in news has decreased, with CNN only having 30% rating for believability (2012)
• media ownership has consolidated, with 90% of all media companies controlled by 5 companies in the US (time warner, Disney, news corp, Comcast, and Viacom/CBS)
• governments has been involved in the production of fake news reports
• there is a common perception of media bias, with conservatives believing it has a liberal bias and liberals believing it has a conservative bias

Question 11

Advertising

Answer 11

• advertising can be defined as the art of convincing people to spend money
• advertising is often viewed with scepticism as it can be misleading or manipulative
• huge sum of money is spent each year on advertising, including political campaigns
• information from blogs and the internet can be unreliable and should be viewed with caution
• confirmation bias can lead to the acceptance of false information
• advertising firms employ psychologists and creative artists to understand and exploit people’s desires and fears
• the production of good advertisements is a combination of art and science
• laypeople may not understand the psychology behind advertisements, but they can evaluate an ad by asking if it provides a good reason to buy the product
• the ultimate evaluation of an advertisement is whether it improves our lives