Lecture 4 Flashcards
Vagueness
- vagueness refers to a word or phase that is uncertain in terms of what it includes or excludes
- vagueness has practical importance in areas such as law, where it can determine the outcome of a case (e.g. whether a driving behaviour is reckless)
- speed limits are set because the term “driving too fast” is vague
- driving above the speed limit is less vague - vagueness can be intentional, as in when a person wants to avoid a precise answer
- vagueness occurs in varying degrees and cannot be entirely eliminated, but it is a valuable concept in everyday use
- problems arise with vagueness when there is to much of it, as in direction-giving or political statements
- the level of acceptability of vagueness depends on the situation and purpose
No limits
No boundaries
Ambiguity
- ambiguity refers to a word, phrase or sentence that has multiple meanings
- examples of ambiguous statements include “Jesica is renting her house” and “my work here is finished”
- ambiguity can lead to humorous misunderstandings, like in headlines like “miners refuse to work after death”
- proper definitions are important
- i saw a man with a telescope
Semantic ambiguity
Is when a claim contains an ambiguous word or phrase that leads to multiple interpretations. It can be resolved by substituting a less ambiguous word or phrase
- language plays tricks
- use simple statements
- avoid ambiguity
Grouping ambiguity
Is a type of semantic ambiguity that occurs when it’s unclear if a word refers to a group collectively or to individual members of the group
Syntactic ambiguity
Occurs when a claim has two or more interpretations due to its structure, or syntax. Rewriting is the key to eliminating syntactic ambiguity, which can result from unclear use of logical words like “or” and “and”
Generality
- generality is a concept related to vagueness and ambiguity
- generality refers to lack of specificity, meaning the more different kinds of things a word applies to, the more general it is.
- difference is specificity can greatly impact decisions and opinions
- the term “War on Terror” is both vague and general
- the term “War on Drugs” is used metaphorically
- it is important to be aware of vagueness, ambiguity, and generality in communication, and to strive for clarity in meaning.
Make it simple, make it clear, make it definable
Football and golf?
- both sports
- both activities
Defining terms
- definition of terms is crucial in critical thinking
- definition of terms goes beyond a straightforward meaning
- definition of terms can have a significant impact, as seen in a recent U.S. Supreme Court case where the definition of use made a difference of thirty years in a criminal sentence
- chapter 12 will show how to handle definitions effectively
I’m going to adopt this ______
- you set your own definition
- i will be defining doping as this
Purposes of definitions
What’s the meaning of the word
- definitions serve several purposes, including:
- telling us what a word means (lexical definition)
- making a term more premise or stipulating a new/different meaning (precising/stripulative definition)
- persuading/influencing by distorting real meaning to evoke positive/negative emotions (persuasive.rhetorical definition) - lexical definitions: explain the ordinary meaning of a word (dictionary definition)
- precising definitions: make a term more precise in a specific context
- stimulative definitions: assign new/different meanings to a word in a specific context
- persuasive/rhetorical definitions: manipulate the real meaning to influence/persuade with emotive meaning/force of words
- connotation refers to the positive/negative emotional associations with a word
Kinds of definitions
How we define stuff
- definitions can serve different purposes and types of definitions can be used to serve them
- three common types of definitions:
- definition by example (ostensive definition): uses examples to show what the term refers to
- definition by synonym: gives another word that means the same as the term being defined
- analytical definition: specifies the features a thing must have for the term to apply to it
- most popular
- used in this country, this state, this time period, this religion
Use these to define terms
Tips
- a definition should not take sides in a debate and should strive for neutrality ground
- definition should be clear, simple and avoid emotive language
- it is okay to have incomplete definitions for abstract concepts like freedom and loyalty
- a precise definition that focuses on ne aspect of the concept may suffice for practical purposes
Writing argumentative response
- an argumentative essay generally has four components: statement of the issue, one’s position on the issue, arguments supporting the position, and rebuttals of arguments against the position
- the introduction should make the issue important or interesting to the reader and the statement of the issue should be fair and neutral
- the position on the issue should be clear and belief, while arguments should be clear, relevant, and reliable
- anticipate and respond to opposing arguments
- writing tips: focus on the issue, stick to the issue, arrange components logically, be complete, use examples and clarify points, and engage the reader in the introduction
Arguing positions - on final exam
Don’t put something in your second argument that can contradict your first argument
Persuasive writing
- persuasive writing aims to support a position on an issue
- writing for a critical audience requires adherence to certain principles
- avoid discussing personal considerations and being strident when rebutting opposing views
- concede to good opposing arguments and focus on the most important considerations if space is limited
- present strongest arguments first
- emphasis is on making and recognizing good arguments rather than only devising effective persuasive techniques
- critical thinking involves constructing ad evaluating claims and arguments independently of their ersuasive power
Doping in sport
Harm or health (to the athlete or others)
For doping:
- doping should be allowed in sport
- sports are already harmful, so doping can’t be any worse than overtraining
- athletes can make their own decisions
- controlled intervention where doctors are in control of doping
Against doping
- doping should be illegal in sport
- doping shouldn’t be allowed in sport
- long term health issues
- in combat sports more strength can do more harm
Cheating
Only cheating cause the rules are there
Compare to affair in marriage
- ask questions about game theory
- do it first before someone else does it to you
- doping in a race cause you think or “know” others are doing it
Un-naturalness in performance
Not everyone is meant to go to the olympics, and doping gives those who are less talented a chance to become as good as
