Lecture 6

Question 1

What are some ethical considerations for data analysis?

Answer 1

• ethical issues related to participant protection from harm and disclosure of comprehensive findings

-> for protection: researchers must mask the participant names

-> engage participants in data analysis => foster collaboration in how data is interpreted

Question 2

What is the data analysis spiral?

Answer 2

= spiral demonstrating the different phases of data collection
-> ! process of moving in analytical circles ipv using a fixed linear approach

-> adressess critique often given to qualitative research of being not explicit (/learning by doing) -> qualitative research = often seen as largely intiuitve, soft, relativistic

(1) data collection
(2) managing and organizing the data
(3) reading and memoing emergent ideas
(4) describing and classifying codes into themes
(5) developing and assessing interpretations
(6) representing and visualizing the data
(7) account finding

Question 3

Define managing and organizing the data. (phase in data analysis spiral)

Answer 3

Strategies:
* preparing files and units
* ensuring ongoing secure storage of files
* selecting mode of analysis

• file naming system and organizing database of files and units of text, images, and recordings
• creation of a long-term file storage plan
• use of software, by hand or hybrid

Question 4

Define reading and memoing emergent ideas. (phase in data analysis spiral)

Answer 4

Strategies
* taking notes while reading
* Sketching reflective thinking
* summarizing field notes

Outcome
* written memos leading to code development, reflections over time, and/or summaries across files or questions or project

Question 5

Provide some recommendations that guide the memoing practice?

Answer 5

1. prioritize memoing throughout the analysis process
2. individualize a system for memo organization
   > 3 levels
   1) segment codes:
   2) document memos
   3) project memos
3. embed sorting strategies for memo retrieval

Question 6

Why is memoing important?

Answer 6

• helps track development of ideas throuh the process + lends credibility to the qualitative data analysis process and outcomes

Question 7

Define segment memos

Answer 7

capture ideas from reading particular phrases in the data

Question 8

Define document memos

Answer 8

capture concepts developed from reviewing an individual file or as a way of documenting evolving ideas from the review across multiple files

Question 9

Define project memos.

Answer 9

capture integration of ideas across one concept or as a way of documenting how multiple concepts might fit together across the project

Question 10

Define describing and classifying codes into themes. (phase in data analysis spiral)

Answer 10

Strategies
* Working with codes
* identifying codes
* applying codes
* reducing codes to themes
-> interpretation in light of own views of perspectives in literature
-> winnowing
-> lean coding
-> final code list: 25-30 categories + 5-6 themes
-> code book

Outcomes
* naming of initial codes
* list of code categories and descriptions
* assign the codes to units of text, images and recordings
* finalized codebook

Question 11

Define winnowing.

Answer 11

= aggregating the text or visual data into small categories of information, seeking evidence for the code from different databases being used in a study, and then assigning a label to the code.”

Question 12

What is lean coding?

Answer 12

= starting with a short list of codes + only expanding the list of initial codes if necessary

Question 13

What is a code book?

Answer 13

= a list of codes and descriptions
-> contains:
* name of code
* Description of code defining boundaries
* example of code using study data

! important for inter-rater reliability !

Question 14

What are some issues that need to be addressed in the coding process?

Answer 14

1. whether qualitative researchers should count codes
   -> might resemble a quantitative approach
2. whether to use preexisting or a priori codes?
   -> preference for open coding but possible if researchers allow emergent additional codes
3. the origin of the code names or labels
   -> in vivo codes, codes from social/health sciences/names by researcher/…
4. types of info a qualitative researcher codes
   -> depending on the approach
   1) narrative: stories, phenomenology: indv experiences and the context, grounded theory: interactions, actions, processes, …
   2) deconstructive stance: issues of desire and power -> attending to disruptions, silence, dismantling dichotomy, …

Question 15

What are some strategies for exploring and developing themes?

Answer 15

1. using memoing to capture emerging thematic ideas
2. highlight noteworthy codes as you code
3. create diagrams representing relationships among codes or emerging concepts
4. draft summary statements reflective of recurring or striking aspects of the data
5. integral role of coding in development of themes

Question 16

Define developing and assessing interpretations (phase in data analysis spiral)

Answer 16

= making sense of data, ‘lessons learned’ -> require both creative and critical faculties in making judgments about what is meaninful in themes, patterns, …
-> postmodernist/interpretive: interpretations = questioning/inconclusive/tentative

Strategies
* relating categories/themes/families
* relating categories/themes/families to analytical framework in literature

Outcome
* contextual understanding and diagrams
* theories and propositions

Question 17

Define representing and visualizing the data. (phase in data analysis spiral)

Answer 17

Strategies
* creating a point of view
* displaying and reporting the data

Outcome
* matrix, trees and models
* account of the findings

Question 18

Provide some strategies for the display of data.

Answer 18

1. search data and select level and type of data to be displayed.
   -> forms and types of data eg. direct quotes, or paraphrases, …
2. sketch and seek feedback on intial formatting ideas
   -> select labels for row and column headings
   -> ask colleagues to review your initial sketches and provide feedback about suggestions for alternative ways of displaying data
3. assess completeness and readability
   -> look for ambiguous or missing data
4. note patterns and possible comparisons and clusters in the display
   > + accompanying displays with text
5. revisit the accompanying text and verify conclusions
   -> check that text goes beyond a descriptive summary of data + offers explanations and conclusions

Question 19

Examine the data analysis and representation of narrative study?

Answer 19

*managing and organizing the data:
create and organize data files

• reading and memoing emergent ideas:
  read through text, make margin notes and form initial codes
• describing and classifying codes into themes: describe patterns across the objective set of experiences
• developing and assessing interpretations:
  Locate epiphanies within stories.
  Identify contextual materials.
• representing and visualizing the data:
  Restory and interpret the larger meaning of the story.

Question 20

What is narrative research analysis and representation?

Answer 20

Narrative analysis
‘family of methods for interpreting texts that have in common a storied form’

-> different approaches:
* literary orientation
1) analyzing text for five elements of plot structure (characters, setting, problem, actions, and resolutions)
2) three-dimensional space approach -> interaction, continuity (past, present), and future) + situation (physical places or storyteller’s places)

• chronological approach
  -> steps?
  1 biographical analysis by identifying an objective set of experiences in subject’s life
  2 look for life-course stages or experiences to develop chronology of individual’s life + look for concrete, contextual biographical materials
  3 organizing patterns and meaning
  -> 4 types of patterns of meaningmaking related to similarities, differences, change or coherence
  4 individual’s biography is reconstructed + researcher identifies factors that have shaped the life
  => analytical abstraction of the case
• turning to how narrative report is composed
  -> 4 analytical strategies
  1) thematic analysis: ‘what’ is spoken/written
  2) structural: ‘how’ story is told
  3) dialogic/performance analysis: talk = interactively produced by researcher and participant
  4) use of visual analysis of images or interpreting images alongside words

Question 21

Examine phenomenological analysis and representation.

Answer 21

• managing and organising the data
  Create and organize data files.
• reading and memoing emergent ideas
  Read through text, make margin notes, and form initial codes.
• describing and classifying codes into themes
  Describe personal experiences through epoche.
  Describe the essence of the phenomenon.
• developing and assessing interpretations
  Develop significant statements.
  Group statements into meaning units.
• representing and visualizing the data
  Develop a textural description —“what happened.”
  Develop a structural description —“how the phenomenon was experienced.”
  Develop the “essence,” using a composite description.

Question 22

What is a phenomenological analysis and representation?

Answer 22

• approach by Creswell & Poth
  1. describe personal experiences with the phenomenon under study -> attempt to set aside researchers personal experience
  2. develop a list of significant statements
  3. group the significant statements into broader units of information (= meaning units or themes)
  4. textural description: create a description of what the participant experienced
  5. structural description: description of how the experience happened
  6. write a composite description of the phenomenon -> combination of textural and structural descriptions “the essence”

*less structured approach
-> 2 conditions:
- critical phenomenological question
- good experiental quality of the data
-> emphasis on gaining understanding of thmes by aksing “What is this example an example of?”
-> 4 guides for reflection: space felt by indvs, physical or bodily presence (what does person in love look like?), time, relationships with others

Question 23

Examine grounded theory analysis and representation.

Answer 23

• managing and organising the data
  Create and organize data files.
• reading and memoing emergent ideas
  Read through text, make margin notes, and form initial codes.
• describing and classifying codes into themes
  Describe open coding categories.
  Select one open coding category to build toward central phenomenon in process.
• developing and assessing interpretations
  Engage in axial coding —causal condition, context, intervening conditions, strategies, and consequences.
  Develop the theory.
• representing and visualizing the data
  Engage in selective coding and interrelate the categories to develop a “story” or propositions or matrix.

Question 24

What is grounded theory analysis and representation?

Answer 24

-> 3 phases: open, axial and selective (Strauss & corbin)

• open coding:
• examining text for categories of info
• reducing database to small set of themes or categories
• Axial coding
• selective coding
• coding paradigm
  = theoretical model -> info from coding in a figure
• conditional matrix
  = analytical aid/diagram to visualize the wide range of conditions and consequences
• -> Charmaz: different approach
• emerging process of forming the theory
  1. initial phase of coding each word/line/segment of data
  2. focused coding -> analyzing for syntheses and larger explanations
  3. examine categories + developing links
  -> theoretical coding: a priori theory

-> Different presentations of theory: hypothesis, theoretical framework, …

Question 25

Examine ethnographic analysis and representation.

Answer 25

* managing and organising the data Create and organize data files. * reading and memoing emergent ideas Read through text, make margin notes, and form initial codes. * describing and classifying codes into themes Describe the social setting, actors, and events; draw a picture of the setting. * developing and assessing interpretations Analyze data for themes and patterned regularities. * representing and visualizing the data Interpret and make sense of the findings— how the culture “works.”

Question 26

What is ethnographic analysis and representation?

Answer 26

3 aspects (by wolcott) 1. description -> describe the group and setting -> different techniques - interpretive: set of facts - chronology - focus on critical/key event - developing "story" with plot and characters - showing different perspectives - examining group interaction 2. analysis -> = 'sorting procedure' -> highlighting specific material OR displaying findings through tables, charts, .. -> use of systematic procedures eg. building taxonomies, comparison tables, .. -> search for patterned regularities -> comparing cutural group to others -> critiquing research process, ... 3. interpretation of culture sharing group

Question 27

Examine case study analysis and representation.

Answer 27

* managing and organising the data create and organize data files * reading and memoing emergent ideas read through text, make margin notes, and form initial codes * describing and classifying codes into themes describe the case and its context * developing and assessing interpretations use categorical aggregation to establish themes or patterns * representing and visualizing the data use direct interpretation Develop naturalistic generalizaitons of what was learned

Question 28

What is case study analysis and representation?

Answer 28

Analysis: Make a detailed description of the case and its setting -> 4 forms of data analysis and interpretation 1. categorical aggregation -> seeking collection of instances from the data + hoping that issue-relevant meanings will emerge 2. direct interpretation -> looking at single instances + drawing meaning from it without looking for multiple instances 3. cross-case synthesis as an analytical technique -> word table displays data from indv cases according to some uniform framework => look for similarities and differences 4. naturalistic generalizations -> generalizations that people can learn from the case for themselves, apply learnings to a population of cases or transfer them to similar context

Question 29

Compare the 5 cases on the basis of data analysis.

Answer 29

Similarities: - begin with creating and organizing files of information - general reading and memoing of information - phase dedicated to description w excpetion of groudned theory Differences - grounded theory and phenomenology: most detailed, expliated procedures - terms used are different - presentation of data

Question 30

Advantages of computer programs for data analysis.

Answer 30

1. “Provides an organized storage file system for ease of retrieval” 2. helps locate material w ease for the purpose of sorting 3. encourages a researcher to look closely at the data 4. produces visual representations for codes and themes 5. lins memos w codes, themes or documents for ease of reviewing 6. enables collaborative analysis and sharing among team members

Question 31

Disadvantages of computer programs for data analysis

Answer 31

1. requires a time investment for learning how to set up and run the program 2. interference with the analysis by creating distance and hindering creativity 3. makes implementing changes for some individuals a hindrance 4. offer limited guidance for analysis > instructions vary in ease of use and accessibility 5. places the onus on the researcher to select appropriate programs for their needs

Question 32

How can a computer program assist with the five approaches?

Answer 32

1. storing and organizing diverse forms of qualitiative data 2. locating and sorting text or image segments associated with a code or theme 3. retrieving and reviewing common passages or segments that relate to two or more code labels 4. comparing and relating among code labels 5. supporting the researcher to concepturalize different levels of abstraction 6. representing and visualizing codes and themes 7. documenting and managing memos into codes 8. creating and appling templates for coding data within each of the five approaches * narrative: codes that relate to story, (chronology, plot or three dimensional model) * phenomenological study: codes for epoche/bracketing, statements, textural/structural descriptions * grounded theory: open, axial, selective * ethnography: memo about theoretical lens, description of culture, analysis of thmes * case study: codes for context & description of case, advanced codes for themes, themes that are similar/different in cross-case analysis

Question 33

What is social semiotics of visual communication?

Answer 33

= the description of semiotic resources, what can be said and done with images (and other visual means of communication) and how the things people say and do with images can be interpreted -> social semiotics: concerned with meaning makers and meaning making. -> semiotic productions and interpretations = not likely to spread beyond small circles unless society needs something new

Question 34

What are semiotic resources?

Answer 34

= the means for communicative purposes eg. point of view -> whether things are depicted from above, below, front, side, ... => creates meaning potential eg. eye-level: symbolic equality; horizontal: involvement -> resources = histories -> invented in context of specific interests and purposes eg. point of view after Renessaince ! 2 important points ! 1. power, detachment, involvement = not 'the' meanings of the angle BUT merely attempt to describe a meaning potential, a field of possible meanings -> need to be activated by producers + viewers of image 2. symbolic relations = not real relations -> pothographers might portray policians equal to people

Question 35

How are semiotic resources used?

Answer 35

1. to make meaning/... for design/... eg. images can reinforce stereotyped forms of masculinity -> example of explore the possibilities: sex campaign -> frontal angle: increase audience identification + hegemonic norms -> oblique angels: men who fail to acquire norms of hegemonic masculinity

Question 36

What are the three kinds of semiotic work?

Answer 36

1. ideational metafunction/representational 2. interpersonal metafunction/interactive 3. textual metafunction/compositional

Question 37

Explain representational meaning.

Answer 37

-> conveyed by the participants (people, places, or things) depicted eg. young man signifies 'wimp' based on visual semantic features -> emphasis on 'syntax': matter of sequencing/placing -> 2 patterns of visual syntactic patterns 1) narrative representations/structures 2) conceptual representations/structures

Question 38

What are narrative structures?

Answer 38

= relate participants in terms of doings and happenings -> recognized by the presence of vector (= line that connects participants) -> expresses dynamic 'doing' or 'happenings' -> 'actor': participants from whom or from which the vector emanates or who themselves form the vector eg. strong downward diagonal vector of man -> 'goal': participant to whom or which the action is done eg. weak upward directionality of vector / at whom the vector is directed -> 'transactive': when both an actor and a goal -> 'non-transactive': only an actor

Question 39

What are conceptual structures?

Answer 39

= visually define or analyse or classify people, places and things -> Different kinds of conceptual patterns: 1. classification structure = bringing different people, places or things together in 1 picture, symmetrically across picture to show that they have something in common 2. symbolic structures = defining the meaning or identity of a participant -> use of symbolic attributes (eg. gestures, values, ...) -> eg. motorbikes: sexual prowess 3. analytical structures = relate participants to each other in terms of a partwhole structure eg. maps, pie charts -> 2 key participants: the carrier (the whole) + possessive attributes (the parts)

Question 40

What are interactive structures?

Answer 40

= create particular relations between viewers and the world inside the picture frame -> 3 factors: 1. contact -> directly looking at viewer: 'demand pictures' -> demand something from viewer -> no contact: 'offers' (detachment, impersonality) 2. distance -> close up: intimacy, reveal individuality and personality -> distance: impersonal, types ipv individuals 3. point of view -> eg. frontal angle, ...

Question 41

What are compositional structures?

Answer 41

-> composition! 1. information value -> = info value is realized by the placement of elements of a composition eg. role of left vs right -> left: given vs right: new eg. top-bottom -> top: ideal (idealized/generalized essence of info) vs bottom: real (down-to-earth info) 2. framing -> = given seperate identities or represented as belonging together -> connects or disconnects e- -> disconnection: done through framelines, through empty space, trough contrasts -> connection: similarities and rhymes of colour and form 3. salience -> making some e- more eye-catching than others -> done through size, colour, contrasts, tonal contrast 4. modality 1) naturalistic modality: the greater the congruence between what you see of an object and what you can see of it in real life w the naked eye => the higher the modality 2) scientific modality: looks at how things are in general (abstract) > no background, detail = simplified or left out, ...