Lecture 4 Flashcards
What is observation?
= research method that enables researchers to systematically observe and record people’s behavior, actions and interactions
=> used to understand and interpret cultural behavior / to situate people’s behavior within their socio-cultural context
=> thick description
-> under interpretive paradigm + often used within ethnographic fieldwork approach
Define thick description
= a description of human social action that describes not just physical behaviors, but their context as interpreted by the actors as well, so that it can be better understood by an outsider
How may observation be beneficial?
- to observe a new topic of research
- To provide context to a study through observation of the social setting (-> may be beneficial for initial rapport development within the study community)
- to describe a specific place or social setting or people’s actions and interactions
- to understand or explain people’s actions in the context
- to discover silent social norms or values -> may be beneficial at the start of the study to know what is appropriate
- to complement other methods of data collection
- To provide a contextual understanding of the findings of other research methods (eg. interviews, …)
What do you observe when using the method of observation?
! depending on the purpose of your observation, you may focus more on certain aspects than others
- actions and interactions
-> goal? to understand people’s behavior within their own sociocultural setting + how the context influences certain behavior
-> to limit the risk of post hoc rationalization (discrepancies) - body language
=> provide rich data on situations and interplay of power or social control in some situations + reveal information about behavioral norms - place or social setting
=> observe how people make use of space, social setting or institution Eg. observe the layout of educational institutions to identify how this influences access for people with disabilities
What is post hoc rationalization
= when participants adjust how they describe their behavior as a form of justification/rationalization
=> discrepancies between what is being told an actual behavior
What are the types of observation?
- participant observation
- non-participant observation
- observation with visual aids
- walk through the spaces
What is participant observation?
= ‘the process of learning through exposure to or involvement in the day-to-day or routine activities of participants in the research setting
-> learn about behavior of indvs + social order + cultural norms
=> emic view of lives
* from a ‘them’ to a ‘we’ orientation: experiencing their life as an ‘insider’
Eg. conducting observation at shopping centre as a shopper yourself
- different levels of participation
1. passive participation
2. moderate participation
3. active participation
4. complete participation
Decision = guided by purpose of observation/RQ + type of activities to be conducted (-> need acceptance!)
What is e-participant observation?
- observing by seeing how people communicate online
- participate in their discussions online?
- exchanging recipes
- eg. during COVID or when difficult to reach in actual world
Why would you use participant observation?
Social constructivist framework
* emic perspective (insider)
-> personal experience => deeper understanding
-> learn language, become fluent => better interviews
-> build relationships => more openness
Transformative + critical theory frameworks
-> contribute to change
eg. by studying farmers => create awareness with farmers about sustainability policy
Postpositivist framework
-> factchecking
What does a participant observation require from the researcher?
- spend a great deal of time in a study context
- develop close relationships with people they have not met before
- take detailed field notes
- possibly incur personal risks (eg. if observing drug users)
Differentiate between the different levels of participant observation.
- passive observation
= do not interact or participate in activities but observe and record observations from the nearby vantage point
eg. customer in the restaurant - moderate participation
= conduct some participation with observation -> both insider and outsider - active participation
= participate in many activities of those you observe, doing what others do, learn the cultural rules and values - complete participation
= become completely involved in the social setting
eg. becoming a waiter in a restaurant
What do you need as a participant observer?
- keep an open mind, conduct detailed observations, and not take observation for granted
- establish rapport and empathy with the study community to be able to participate in their lives
- learn to separate interpretation from observation
What is non-participant observation?
= an observation without participation in the activities you are observing -> observe from distance + not part of the situation
= ‘fly on the wall’
-> However! difficult to be invisible -> Hawthorne effect
=> broader view of the people or activities + more freely taking notes, observing and listening
-> requires less involvement + less rapport building
How can you make yourself relatively less visible during non-participant observation?
- visiting your study community regularly to help build rapport with the community or neighbourhoud
- trying to blend into the setting by the way you dress or your appearance
- observing the rythm of activities and trying not to observe them
What is observation with visual aids?
= observation by using visual recording equipment such as video or still camera
-> ! need the permission of those observed
! you only observe the focus on the video camera!
video > photograph -> selective and framed a certain way
! must normalize equipment !
! observation through video = can be by researcher of by the participants eg. children of sex workers = photovoice
When is an observation with visual aid used?
-> used when?
* When the presence of the researcher = intrusive and interfere with the normal behavior of those observed
* When setting or interaction = too personal eg. therapy session
* wish to study group dynamics
What are some advantages of observation with visual aid?
- facilitate a detailed observation -> can stop video/review + focus on different aspects
- gain access to certain situations or location
How can you normalize the video equipment?
- letting people see and handle the equipment
- Make a recording and show people the outcome
- carrying the equipment in the community or the social setting on a regular basis, so that it becomes a familiar sight
What is photovoice?
= whereby photographs are taken by participants themselves and analyzed by the researcher for the purpose of social action
What is walk through the spaces?
= the researcher walks through the study community or location together with a community member who describes the social setting and the usual activities that take place
-> researcher = can ask community member to describe certain things, … => emic view
-> ! particulalry useful at early stages of a study
How is walk-through spaces different from other types of observations?
- it combines observation with contextual commentary from a community member
- it provides observation from the perspective of a community member
- you are participating while moving through the neighborhood (vs stationary in one location) and therefore gain a broader and more diverse view of the study area
What is walk through the spaces?
= the researcher walks through the study community or location together with a community member who describes the social setting and the usual activities that take place
-> researcher = can ask a community members to describe certain things, … => emic view
-> ! particularly useful at the early stages of a study
What elements need to be considered during the preparation of an observation?
- reflecting on positionally
-> consider how you (as a researcher) might influence what is observed
-> reflect on the following issues. (see later) - Selecting a place
-> at the beginning: identify and sketch various locations + ask local informants + make note of: - the activities being conducted
- the types of people present
- the locations from which to observe
+ be aware of how visible/obtrusive you may be in the location - gaining access
-> increasing access after rapport building
-> manner in which you seek access + the manner in which permission is given => highlights the positionality of researcher => levels of trust - appearance
-> researcher = should adapt clothes/appearance to blend in !
-> clothes -> often reflect social status, …
=> consult local collaborators on how best dressed - pre-test yourself
-> why helps? - to check if you are able to obsere and document situation effectively
- make you realize the time needed for observing the context vs the time needed to observe particular activities in the context
- helps determine the length of time you can pay attention to observing a situation
What questions should one reflect upon considering the positionality?
- how do I enter the community and introduce myself to community members?
- what are the possible questions that the group/community may ask me?
- what will they think of me and how will they react to my presence? what were my personal impressions of them when I started the observation?
- what are my personal impressions of them after the observation?
What factors may influence the denial of access to a certain location?
-> denied access why?
- lack of trust from community about intentions of researcher
- discomfort of community in having an outsider observe them
- concern about potential risk to the community or group
- gender?
What are the two options for writing an observation?
- field notes
-> clear, detailed notes for data analysis -> often on small notepad > laptop
-> multiple elements: people, place, ..
-> no interpretation ! - field diary
-> personal thoughts, interpretations, hunches, personal opinions, …
What is a simple strategy for making detailed descriptive field notes?
- write about where you are seated in the social setting
- sketch the location you are observing
- count the n of people and describe their characteristics
- describe the actual setting you are observing
- focus on how people move around in the setting
What are the stengths of an observation?
- Provides familiarity with cultural milieu
- Provides context to behavior
- Explains behavior
- Documents unspoken rules of behavior
- Less intrusive than interview methods
- Provides insight into people’s Interactions
What are the weaknesses of an observation?
- time-consuming
- recording field notes = cumbersome
- simultaneous observing and recording = may be difficult
- fields notes = may be subjective
- researchers need to refrain from interpretation
- need skilled observers
- limited as a stand-alone method
What are the data collection activities?
- locating site/individual
- gaining access and developing rapport
- sampling purposefully
- collecting purposefully
- collecting data (-> to do so, researcher develops protocols + pilot)
- recording information
- minimizing field issues (eg. inadequate data)
- storing data securely
- attend to ethical consideration (for all phases!)
-> ! interrelated activities -> aim? good info to answer emerging RQ
What is purposeful sampling?
= when sampling intentionally a group that can best inform the researcher about the research problem under question
Major decisions?
- whom to select as participants or sites
- the specific type of sampling strategy
- the size of the sample to study
! qualitative research = smaller sample -> interested in deeper understanding ipv generalizations
What are some types of qualitative sampling?
- purposeful sampling
* snowball
* maximum variation
* extreme/deviant
*typical - theoretical samples (discriminate) -> emergent sampling strategy
- convenience sampling: easily accessed + practical considerations eg. time, money, … eg. student associations help with finding people
How to know the size of your sample?
- depends on many different factors: what is the full population? what is your aim? Interested in normal people or experts?
- direction for your consideration: Am I hearing things? Do I see a clear patter in the interviews? Does adding more interviews substanitally change these patterns?
What are institutional review boards?
= a committee that applies research ethics by reviewing the methods proposed for research to ensure that they are ethical
-> key activity to obtain permission by institutional review boards
-> purpose? to review wether study design follows their guidelines for conducting ethical research
What is traditionally studied (sites or individuals) according to each approach?
Narrative
- single individual, accessible, willing to provide information and distinctive by their stories of experience/specific phenomenon/issue
-> 2 sources: invd met on chance encounter, from wider study or volunteers VS margical or ordinary person
-> altn pespective: ‘narrative = “comes into existence” => focus on stories + relevant time and space -> all people = narratives
-> first-order vs second-order narratives
Phenomenology
- Multiple individuals who have experienced the phenomenon
-> the more diverse => more difficult to find common experiences, themes, …
-> single or multiple sites
Grounded theory
- multiple indvs who have responded to an action or participated in a process about a central phenomenon
-> NOT located at a single site !
Ethnography
- members of a culture-sharing group or indivs representative of a group
-> single site
Case study
- a bounded system, such as a process, an activity, an event, a program, or multiple individuals
Differentiate between first and second order narratives.
First-order narratives
= indvs tell stories about themselves and their own experiences
Second-order narratives
= researcher construct a narrative about other people’s experiences or present a collective story that represents the lives of many
Is it possible to study your own organization, place of work or yourself?
NO
- issues of power
- risk to researcher, participants and the site
- jeoparsize jobs if unfaborable data of if participants disclose private information
Difference with studying yourself -> eg. autoethnography
What are typical access and rapport procedures?
! Always permission from human subjects review board -> university, individuals, organizational bodies
Narrative
- gaining permission from individuals, obtaining access to information archives
-> disclose motivation of researcher for selection, grant anonymity, purpose of study => rapport building
Phenomenology
- finding people who have experienced the phenomenon + written permission
Grounded theory
- locating a homogenous sample + establish rapport as to have detailed perspectives
Ethnography
- gaining access through the gatekeeper, gaining the confidence of the informants
- gatekeeper adresses trust, culture and language concerns
Case study
- gaining access through the gatekeeper, gaining the confidence of the informants
What should be included in a consent form?
- The right of participants to voluntarily withdraw from the study at any time
- The central purpose of the study and the procedures to be used in data collection
- The protection of the confidentiality of the respondents
- The known risks associated with participation in the study
- The expected benefits to accrue to the participants in the study
- The signature of the participant as well as the researcher
How does one select a site or individuals to study (purposeful sampling)?
Narrative
- several strategies, depending on the person (eg. convenient, politically important)
- reflect on whom to sample (indv = convenient or politically important, marginalized, ordinary) -> all have stories to tell about their lived experiences
- n = 1/2
Phenomenology
- finding individuals who have experienced the phenomenon, a “criterion” sample
- n = 3-10
Grounded theory
- finding a homogenous sample, a “theory-based” sample, a “theoretical” sample
- after building theory -> heterogeneous sample (-> aim? to confirm or disconfirm the conditions under which the model holds)
- n = 20/30
Ethnography
- finding a cultural group to which one is a “stranger”, a “representative” sample
-> Big net approach -> opportunistic sampling vs criterion sampling
- n = 1
Case study
- finding a case or cases, an atypical or maximum variation or extreme case
-> preference: unusual cases with maximum variation
- n = 1-4/5
What is theoretical sampling?
= process of sampling individuals that can contribute to building the opening and axial coding of the theory
What is the big net approach?
= where the researcher interacts with a wide variety of informants in as many different settings as possible
- The ethnographer often talks with whoever is willing and able in order to gain initial access to informants’ private worlds.
-> researcher = relies on judgment to select members
-> opportunistic sampling OR criterion sampling
What is opportunistic sampling?
= the choosing of participants or other sampling factors for an experiment or questionnaire essentially because they’re readily available.
What is maximum variation sampling?
= This approach consists of determining in advance some criteria that differentiate the sites or participants and then selecting sites or participants that are quite different on the criteria”
What are the types of sampling strategies in qualitative inquiry?
- Maximum variation
- Homogenous
- critical case
- theory based
- conforming and disconfirming cases
- snowball or chaing
- extreme or deviant case
- typical case
- intensity
- politically important (-> for attention)
- random purposeful (-> for credibility)
- stratified purposeful (-> for comparison)
- criterion (-> for quality assurance)
- opportunistic (-> to follow new leads, unexpected)
- combination/mixed
- convenience
What type of information typically is collected (forms of data)?
Narrative
- documents and archival material, open-ended interviews, subject journaling, participant observation, casual chatting, computer-mediated,
Phenomenology
- interviews w a range of people
(- descriptions drawn from novelists, poets, painters, …)
Grounded theory
- primarily interviews to achieve detail in the theory
- other: participant observation, researcher reflection, or journaling (memoing), focus groups, journalling
Ethnography
- participant observations, interviews, artifacts, and documents of a single culture-sharing group
-> most popular: observing and interviewing
case study
- extensive forms, such as documents, and records, interviews, direct observation, participant observation, physical artifacts
! documents + audiovisual materials = supplementary to interviews and observations
What are the 4 basic types of information?
- interviews
- observations
- documents
- audiovisual materials
Examine computer-mediated data collection methods
Eg. video, virtual focus groups, web-based interviews, social media, …
Adv?
- cost and time efficiency (reduced cost of travel and data transcription)
- time and space flexibility
- alternative for hard-to-reach groups
Disadv?
- ethical concerns eg. privacy, ownership of data, trust in data collected, authenticity, …
- new requirements to participants and researchers eg. technical skills, reading/writing profiency
What are the 3 types of documents (data collection)?
- personal documents (eg. e-mails, blogs)
- official documents (organizationally produced websites, handbooks, reports, …)
- popular culture documents (eg. magazines, )
What is interviewing?
= social interaction based on a conversation -> knoweldge = constructed in interaction bewteen interviewer and interviewee
-> how interactions take place = dependend on the choice of interview type (eg. one-on-one, talking over phone, focus groups, …)
What should be considered before engaging in an interview?
- What are you interested in researching (research design) and how can interviewing help in getting answers?
-> the purpose of the interview in relation to your research design
What are some research interests that can be used for interviewing?
-> ! not only experiences !
* policy making processes
* policy implementation processes
* individual/group specific experiences
* organization/institutional developments
* current state of affairs and or changes over time
What are some benefits and challenges to interviewing?
Benefits:
* Possibilities to focus and adjust the scope (flexibility)
* large role for researcher (must make you feel welcome, safe, …)
Challenge
* each encounter = new data/new negotiation => constant reflection needed
* multiple positionalities and ‘power dance’ (= power dynamics) between interviewer and interviewee
Define narrative interviews.
AIM: interviewee’s story about a certain sequence of events/proces - fits with human nature: people like to tell stories
- elicit stories: sequence of events presented as a coherent whole through a plot -> make story more visible
- diachronic accounts (not synchronic) -> interest in development over time (not about structure)
eg. What is your view on restructuring the organization? Did this change from previously? - the art of inviting stories -> need to make explicit what you want to hear + use the right kind of questions -> often participant = intimidated by authority of researcher + feel like their story is not interesting
-> 1. help respondent to go back in time: When did that happen? What kind of place was it?
-> 2. then narrative questions: Could you walk me through and tell ma what happened over the course of that evening? What is the story? Could you tell me how the project evolved over time, from its start of the current situation?
Define ethnographic interviews.
AIM: Insight in lived experiences of interviewees -> becoming an insider
- unstructured, informal conversations (rather than Q&A) but still goal-oriented! -> often in context of ‘their home’ or ‘workplace’
- the art of balancing person - taks orientation, the chit chat, and the ethnographic
- Notes? No notes at all - having ‘normal’ conversations
! consent form from gatekeeper !
Define phenomenological interviews.
AIM: insight in lived experience of interviewee (regarding a certain phenomenon)
- semi-structured (theme-focused) interviews
- question list or topic list
- the art of probing (for the essence of meaning): stimulating an informant to give more information (‘doorvragen’)
-> Difference w narrative: narrative - full story vs phenomenology: focused
Question types:
* open, themed questions eg. what is your experience with drinking
* probing (examples) eg. How did you feel about that?
Define grounded theory interviews.
AIM: insight in how people perceive a process, steps in the process drivers of a process
- mostly semi-structured
- the art of adapting interviews; from more open questions to elaborating on certain (central) categories
- questions vary depending on the phase of the research
What are the varies question (types) of grounded theory?
- Description: What was the process? How did it unfold?
- Core phenomenon: What was central to the process? (axial codes)
- Causal conditions: What caused this? How did this happen? What other factors played a role?
- Consequences: What were the effects?
Define case study interviews.
AIM: in-depth info about facts (postpositivist) and perceptions (social constructivist)
- Based on varying interpretive frameworks: highly structured - semi-structured - unstructured
- question types
1. factual questions (postpositivist)
eg. Which organizations are in the steering committee?
- questions on perceptions (social constructivist)
eg. What is your view on the role of your organization?
! Interview questions do not equal questions of inquiry
- You should translate the questions of inquiry to questions people can understand (interview questions)
When are focus groups advantageous?
- When the interaction among interviewees will likely yield the best information
- when interviewees are similar and cooperative with each other when time to collect information is limited
- When individuals interviewed one-on-one may be hesitant to provide information”
How is information recorded?
Narrative
- notes, interview protocol
Phenomenology
- interviews
Grounded theory
- interview protocol, field notes, memoing
Ethnography
- field notes, interview and observational protocols
Case study
- field notes, interview and observational protocols
What are the advantages of new developments such as virtual reality applications?
- longer questioning
- larger numbers can be managed
- more heated and open exchanges occur
-> problems with online focus groups?
* obtaining complete informed consent
* recruiting individuals to participate
* choosing times to convene given different times zones
Why should you use interviews (from the philosophical assumptions?)
Postpositivist:
* description of reality -> fact-checking
Social constructivist
* access to social constructions of respondent (and interviewer) + data ‘construction’
-> becoming an insider
Postmodernist
* access to social construction of respondent and interviewer + influenced by existing power structures and existing discourse, ‘power talk’ -> impact by looking at language/discourse
Pragmatist:
* effective to answer RQ about perceptions/socially constructed issues
Critical theorist
* to empower human beings, to comprehend underlying orders of social life, to address areas of inequalities; to give a platform to marginalised to tell their social realities
* making a change
What are the procedures of preparing and conducting interviews?
- determine the research questions that will be answered by interviews -> q = open-ended, general and focused
- identify interviewees who can best answer these questions based on one of the purposeful sampling procedures mentioned in the preceding discussions
- distinguish the type of interview by determining what mode is practical and what interactions will net the most useful information to answer research questions
- collect data using adequate recording procedures when conducting one-on-one or focus group interviews
- design and use an interview protocol or interview guide -> approx. 5-7 open-ended questions
- refine the interview questions and the procedures through pilot testing
- locate a distraction-free place for conducting the interview
- obtain consent from the interviewee to participate in the study by completing a consent form approved by the human relations review board
- as an interviewer, follow good interview procedures
-> stay within study boundaries, use the protocol to guide questions, be respectful, and offer few questions, … - decide transcription logistics ahead of time
What is observing?
= act of noting a phenomenon in the field setting through the five senses of the observer, often with a note-taking instrument, and recording it for scientific purposes
What are the 4 observation types according to Cresswell and Powel?
- complete participant
-> researcher = fully engaged w people he/she is observing - participant as observer
-> researcher = participating in activity at site + participant role = more salient than the researcher role - nonparticipant or observer as participant
-> researcher = outsider of the group under study, watching and taking field notes from a distance
-> people are aware of your presence - complete observer
-> researcher = seen nor noticed by the people under study
-> may be problematic: ethics?
What would postpositivist/social constructivist/critical theorist say about involvement or detachment during observations?
Postpositivist
* Need to keep distance to control vias (detachment)
Social constructivist
* good thing to get involved (emic view) but need to reflect on how that makes you biased
Critical theorist
* good thing to get involved to understand experiences
What are the procedures for observation?
- select a site to be observed -> obtain permission
- at the site, identify who/what to observe, when and for how long
- distinguish a type of observation based, initially on a role to be assumed as an observer
- design and use an observational protocol as a method for recording notes in the field -> both descriptive and reflective notes
- record aspects as portraits of the participant, the physical setting, particular events and activities, and your own reactions -> describe what happened + reflect
- build initial rapport by having someone introduce you if you are an outsider, being passive and friendly, and starting with limited objectives in the first few sessions of observation -> early observational sessions = take few notes + simply observe
- as an observer, follow good observational procedures
-> after observing -> withdraw from the site, thanking the participants + informing them of the use of data and their accessibility to the study - prepare timely notes that are thick and rich in narrative description after the observation
What are some field issues that may occur during data collection?
Issues?
- entry and organizational access
* need to establish trust, credibilit
* participants : may be fearful that issues will be exposed to people outside community
* issue of working with an institutional review board that may not be familiar with unstructured interviews
- procedures for observations
- challenge = dependent on role of inquirer (participant, nonparticipant, …)
- challenge with mechanics of observing (eg. remembering to take field notes, determining the best timing to move roles, …)
Eg. Distrust of researcher studying Nigerian minority ethnic group -> accussed of spying, … - dynamics between interviewer and interviewee
- unexpected participant behaviors and student ability to create good instructions, phrase and negotiate questions, …
- problems eg. using icebreakers, handling emotional outbursts, …
- importance of reflecting on relationship between interviewer and interviewee - power assymmetry
- availability of documents and audiovisual materials
- locating materials
- obtaining permissions
- field issues such as when participants hold journals, … -> what instructions should be given, are all participants comfortable with doing so? …
- recording on video => need to minimize background noise, deciding on best location, …
What are some principles for data storage and handling?
*Always develop backup copies of computer files
* Use high-quality tapes or recording devices for audio-recording information during interviews + Also, make sure that the size of the tapes fits the transcriber’s machine.
* Develop a master list of types of information gathered.
* Protect the anonymity of participants by masking their names in the data, and if a master list is needed, be sure to store it separately.
* Develop a data collection matrix as a visual means of locating and identifying information for a study.”
What are common data collection issues?
Narrative
- access to materials, authenticity of account, and materials
Phenomenology
- bracketing one’s experiences, logistics of interviewing
Grounded theory
- interviewing issues (eg. logistics, openness)
Ethnography
- field issues (eg. reflexivity, reactivity, reciprocality, “going native”, divulging private information, deception)
Case study
- interviewing, and observing issues
How is information typically stored (storing data)?
Narrative
- file folders, digital files
Phenomenology
- transcriptions, digital files
Grounded theory
- transcriptions, digital files
Ethnography
- field notes, transcriptions, digital files
Case study
- field notes, transcriptions, digital files
What are some differences between the five approaches concerning data collection?
- difference in direction towards specific types of data collection eg. narrtive/case: multiple forms VS grounded: primarily interviews
- varying unit of analysis
- a differing amount of discussion about field issues among the five approaches
-> ethnographers = extensively -> reflect historical concerns about imbalanced power relationships, … - vary in intrusiveness of data collection
-> interviews = less intrusive in grounded theories than personal narratives
What are some similarities between the five approaches concerning data collection?
- all sponsered by public institutions need approval of human subjects review board
- central use of interviews and observations
- recording devices eg. interview protocols and observational protocols
- issue of data storage of information = closely related to form of data collection + basic objective of researchers
Define phenomenological interviews.
AIM:
