Lecture 1

Question 1

What is qualitative research?

Answer 1

FULL DEFINITION IN SMALLER PARTS:
* begins with the assumption and the use of interpretive/theoretical frameworks that inform the study of research problems by addressing the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to social or human problems
* To study this problem, QR uses an emerging qualitative approach to inquiry, the collection of data in a natural setting, sensitive to the people and places under study, and data analysis is both inductive and deductive and establishes patterns and themes.
* The final written report or presentation includes the voices of the participants, the reflexivity of the researcher, a complex description and interpretation of the problem, and its** contribution to the literature or a call for change **

Keywords:
- Interpretive/theoretical frameworks
- Meaning indvs or groups ascribe to social/human problems (meaning-making - how do people experience the world?)
- emerging qualitative approach
- in a natural setting
- sensitive to people and places
- both inductive and deductive
- voices of participants
- reflexivity of the researcher (understanding own biases)
- complex description and interpretation
- contribution to literature (add to the body of knowledge) VS call for change

Focus on HOW and WHAT ipv HOW MANY
Meaning making, interpretations and perceptions

Question 2

Demonstrate the research process (+ situate philosophy and interpretive frameworks within the research process)

Answer 2

PHASE 1: the researcher as a multicultural subject
-> history and research tradition
-> conception of self and the other
-> ethics and politics of research
(perspectives & experiences)

PHASE 2: philosophical assumptions and interpretive frameworks
-> philosophical assumptions: ontology, epistemology, axiology, methodology
-> frameworks: postpositivism, pragmatism, …

PHASE 3: Research strategies and approaches
-> design, case study, ethnography, grounded theory, …

PHASE 4: methods of collection and analysis
-> observing, interviewing, oral history, textual analysis, focus groups, …

PHASE 5: the art, practice, and politics of interpretation and evaluation
-> criteria for judging adequacy, writing as interpretation, evaluation traditions, policy analysis

Question 3

Why are philosophical assumptions important?

Answer 3

• gives direction to the research goals and outcomes (-> how we formulate our problem and research questions, how we seek information, …)
• says something about the scope of training and research experience (assumptions = deeply rooted in training and reinforced by the scholarly community in which we work)
• basis of evaluative criteria for research-related decisions

Philosophical assumptions influence the research question, and affect the type of data collection chosen, …

Question 4

Can philosophical assumptions change?

Answer 4

• can change over time and over a career
• multiple assumptions can be taken during a given study -> but dependent on research experience, openness, and acceptability of ideas taken, …

Question 5

What are the 4 philosophical assumptions?

Answer 5

1. ontology
2. epistemology
3. axiology
4. methodology

Question 6

What is ontology?

Answer 6

= researcher’s view on reality

• Addresses questions?: What is the nature of reality; what is existence and what does it mean to exist? is there a single reality out there?
• dominant view in QR: multiple realities, reflected in using multiple forms of evidence (quotes, perspectives, …)
• evidence of multiple views?
  -> use of multiple forms of evidence in themes using the actual words of different indvs OR/AND presenting different perspectives

! importance? ontology gives direction nat whether 1 single factual reality or multiple => impact on how you design your research

Question 7

What is epistemology?

Answer 7

= how the researcher knows reality (= nature of knowledge)

• addresses questions: what counts as knowledge? how are knowledge claims justified? what is the relationship between the researcher and that being researched?
• eg. knowledge = something that you can justify; or from observation; or from experiences; or from common sense: or from scientific knowledge; or
• dominant view in QR: knowledge = based on subjective experiences of people -> ‘first hand’ information from people, getting to know people => researcher attempts to lessen the distance between himself and that being researched (fieldwork)

EG. following stories/trajectories of migrants to understand how the bureaucratic contacts effect integration of migrants in the long-term

Question 8

What is axiology?

Answer 8

= the value-stance taken by the inquirer

• study of values (from pers experience, gender, race, …) + what role do values have in research? -> researchers need to position on values (! need to be made explicitly!)
• various views in QR: postpositivism VS value-driven (Cresswell)

! need to acknowledge bias ! eg. I acknowledge my privilege to sit at the planning table; I do not realize that my race impacted my participants and my research findings

Question 9

What is methodology?

Answer 9

= the procedures used in the study

• the study of research procedures and methods: focus on the process of doing research
• views in QR:
  Varies from inductive to deductive
  Researcher studies topic in (social, historical, etc) context
  Emergent research design (inductive reasoning vs deductive reasoning)

Question 10

What is inductive reasoning?

Answer 10

observation -> pattern -> hypothesis -> theory

Question 11

What is deductive reasoning?

Answer 11

theory -> hypothesis -> observation -> confirmation

Question 12

What are paradigms/worldviews/interpretative frameworks?

Answer 12

= ‘basic set of beliefs that guides action’; OR theories/theoretical orientations that guide the practice of research

2 categories:
1. social science: shape how the researchers view the problems and data (postpositivism, social constructivism, pragmatism)
2. social justice science: addressing problems or even calling for action in the context of a specific social issue (feminist theory, queer theory, …)

Question 13

What is postpositivism? (general)

Answer 13

• no strict cause and effect BUT cause and effect = probabilities
• e-: reductionist, logical, empirical, cause-and-effect oriented, deterministic based on a priori theories
• when used? indvs w prior quantitative research training + to support quantitative research
• practice?
  -> inquiry = logically related steps + rigorous methods of qualitative data collection and analysis -> multiple levels of data analysis for rigor, employ computer programs to assist, encourage validity approaches, write qualitative in form of scientific reports w structure resembling quantitative articles

Question 14

What is postpositivism in relation to philosophical assumptions?

Answer 14

Ontology:
– A single reality exists beyond ourselves, out there
– Reality = discovered following a series of logically-related steps ->! Researchers may not be able to understand it perfectly!

Epistemology
– Reality can only be approximated/discovered ipv ‘constructed’ – It is revealed through research and statistics
– Limit interaction with research subjects
– Validity comes from peers not participants

Axiology
– Control researcher bias
– No need to explicate them (because they are controlled)

Methodology
– Rigorous scientific methods are important: measuring and objectiving.
– Deductive: theory testing

Question 15

What is social constructivism? (general)

Answer 15

• indvs = seek understandings of the world in which they live and work -> develop subjective meanings of their experiences (= meanings directed towards certain objects or things)
• goal? to rely on the participant’s view of the situation
• subjective meanings = negotiated socially and historically -> formed through interaction with others
• inductive
• interpretation!
• practice? broad questions => participant can construct meaning of a situation + focus on specific contexts + closely study participants

Question 16

What is social constructivism in relation to philosophical assumptions?

Answer 16

Ontology
– Multiple realities = constructed through our lived experiences and interactions with others
– Truth = derived from social interactions and experiences around us

Epistemology
– Important to understand how people construct reality, rather than ‘facts’
– Knowledge about reality: co-constructed between researcher and subjects

Axiology
– Individual values of researcher matter: ‘co-creation’.

Methodology
– Aimed at reconstructing subjective meanings of subjects, in context.
– First-hand information
– Inductive and emergent; bottom-up.

Question 17

What are transformative frameworks?

Answer 17

= participatory action research

Why used?
- postpositivist impose laws and theories that do not fit marginalized individuals or groups + constructivists = do not go far enough in advocating action to help individuals

Basic tenet?
- knowledge = neutral + reflects the power and social relationships within society -> purpose of knowledge construction = to aid people to improve society

Goal?
- action agenda for reform

Features?
- recursive or dialectical -> focused on bringing about change in practices
- focused on helping individuals free themselves from constraints found in the media, in language, …
- emancipatory -> helps unshackle people from constraints of irrational and unjust structures -> aim? to create a political debate and discussion
- practical and collaborative -> participants help design, …

Encompasses? postmodernism + feminist theory/queer theory/disability theory/critical race theory
-> commonality? all encourage participation of research subjects + reflection on methods + social change

Question 18

What is postmodernism? (general)

Answer 18

What?
- focus their critiques on changing ways of thinking ipv calling for action based on these changes

Basic concept?
- knowledge claims = set within the conditions of the world today + in multiple perspectives of class, race, gender and other group affiliations
-> negative conditions: eg. in presence of hierarchies, power, and control by individuals, multiple meanings of language

Question 19

What is postmodernism in relation to philosophical assumptions?

Answer 19

Ontology
- There are multiple realities -> Reality = defined by our experiences AND concepts; there is no reality beyond that (no brute facts)
- (further than social constructivism)

Epistemology
– Knowledge = defined through language and social habits
– One’s position, and power structures, = crucial in knowledge development.
– Dominant neo-liberal ideology and discourse; emphasis on marginalized groups.
– Truth is relative to a certain frame of reference. There are multiple ways of knowing

Axiology
- respect for multiple value systems (indigenous values)
– Some value systems need to be problematized: transformative goal, deconstruct language and showing dominations and power structures.

Methodology
– Questioning of methods; meaning is fluid and messy. Be careful with generalizations
– Stress transparency by highlighting issues and concerns

Critique -> downplaying role of scientific knowledge

Question 20

What is critical/social justice in relation to philosophical assumptions?

Answer 20

Ontology
– Multiple realities
– Reality = based on power and identity struggles. Privilege or oppression based on race, ethnicity, class, gender, …

Epistemology
– Knowledge influenced by identity
– Knowledge gained through study of social structures, oppression, power.
– Knowledge gained through research can help to change reality

Axiology
– Diversity of values = emphasized

Methodology
– General: Identify social structures that institutionalize social injustice, document that, and call for action and change
– (But quite some variation here)

Eg. unequal opportunities for black males

Question 21

What is pragmatism? (general)

Answer 21

What?
- focus on the outcomes of the research (actions, consequences, situations of inquiry)
- concern w “what works” + solutions to problems
- less focus on methods

Basic ideas?
- not committed to any system of philosophy and reality
- freedom of choice for researchers -> free to choose methods, techniques, …
- world = not an absolute unity
- many approaches to collecting and analyzing data
- truth = what works at the time
- look to the ‘what’ and ‘how’ of the researcher based on its intended consequences
- always occurs in social, historical, political, and other contexts
- believe in the external world independent of the mind but also lodged in the mind

Practice
- multiple methods of data collection
- multiple sources of data collection
- focus on practical implications of the research
- emphasize the importance of conducting research that best addresses the research problem

Question 22

What is pragmatism in relation to philosophical assumptions?

Answer 22

Ontology
– ‘Reality? Whatever’
– No commitment to a particular view of reality
– Pick a view on reality that works

Epistemology
– Knowledge developed through many research methods
– Use methods that work in that situation

Axiology
– Discuss values if they seem to influence the results
– Discuss or ignore values if needed to realize a particular goal (e.g. to convince the reader or to get published)

Methodology
– Depends on research question, and resources available
– Mixed methods

Question 23

What is pragmatism? (general)

Answer 23

What?
- focus on the outcomes of the research (actions, consequences, situations of inquiry)
- concern w “what works” + solutions to problems
- less focus on methods

Basic ideas?
- not committed to any system of philosophy and reality
- freedom of choice for researchers -> free to choose methods, techniques, …
- world = not an absolute unity
- many approaches to collecting and analyzing data
- truth = what works at the time
- look to the ‘what’ and ‘how’ of the researcher based on its intended consequences
- always occurs in social, historical, political, and other contexts
- believe in the external world independent of the mind but also lodged in the mind

Practice
- multiple methods of data collection
- multiple sources of data collection
- focus on the practical implications of the research
- emphasize the importance of conducting research that best addresses the research problem

Question 24

What is feminist theory?

Answer 24

What?
- center on and make problematic women’s diverse situations and institutions that frame those situations
- subject? often gender domination
- embraces tenets of postmodern and poststructuralist critiques as a challenge to the injustices of current society

Goals?
- to establish collaborative and nonexploitative relationships
- to place researcher within study as to avoid objectification
- to conduct research that is transformative

Aim?
- ‘to correct both the invisibility and distortion of female experience in ways relevant to ending women’s unequal social position’

Question 25

What is critical theory? (general)

Answer 25

What?
- concerned with empowering human beings to transcend the constraints placed on them by race, class and gender

How?
- researchers need to acknowledge their own power, engage in dialogues, and use theory to interpret or illuminate social action
- themes? problems of domination, alienation, social struggles, scientific study of social institutions and their transformations

Methodology?
- eg. inclusion of participatns, encourage people to interact, become activists, form action-oriented groups, help individuals examine the conditions of their existence

End goal?
- social theorizing = “the desire to comprehend + transform the underlying orders of social life”

Question 26

What is critical race theory?

Answer 26

What?
- focus on studying and transforming the relationship between race, racism, and power

3 main goals?
1. to present stories about discrimination from the perspective of people of color
2. argues for eradication of racial subjugation + recognizing race = construct
3. addressing other areas of difference eg. gender, class, inequities, …

Practice?
- foregrounds race and racism in all aspects of the research process
- challenges the traditional research paradigms, texts, and theories used to explain experiences of people of color
- offers transformative solutions to racial, gender and class subordination in societal and institutional structures

Question 27

What is queer theory?

Answer 27

What?
- explores a myriad of complexities of the construct, identity and how identities reproduce and perform in social forums
- focus on inquiry ipv methodology

Goal?
- to challenge and undercut identity as a singular, fixed or normal
- seek to challenge categorization processes and their deconstructions

Overview?
- both heterosexual/homosexual binary + sex/gender split = challenged
- There is a decentering of identity.
- All sexual categories (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, heterosexual) are open, fluid, and nonfixed.
- Mainstream homosexuality is critiqued.
- Power = embodied discursively.
- All normalizing strategies = shunned.
- Academic work may become ironic and often comic and paradoxical.
- Versions of homosexual subject positions are inscribed everywhere.
- Deviance = abandoned, and interest lies in insider and outsider perspectives and transgressions.
- Common objects of study are films, videos, novels, poetry, and visual images.
- The most frequent interests include the social worlds of the so-called radical sexual fringe (e.g., drag kings and queens, sexual playfulness). (p. 201)

Question 28

what is disability theory?

Answer 28

What?
- adresses the meaning of inclusion in schools and encompasses administrators, teachers, parents who have children w disabilities
- focus on disability as a dimension of human difference (social construction) -> not as a defect

Question 29

What are some of the common elements of how interpretive frameworks will be used?

Answer 29

• research focuses on understanding specific issues or topics
• research procedures = sensitive to participants and context -> eg. no further marginalization, sensitive to power imbalances, respect indvs differences, …
• researchers = respectful co-constructors of knowledge -> recognition of the importance of subjectivity of own lens, acknowledge powerful position in research, …
• research = reported in diverse formats and calls for societal change