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Cognitive Psychology and its Applications 2019 > Lecture 5, C 8,12,15 > Flashcards

Lecture 5, C 8,12,15 Flashcards

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1
Q

4 reasons why tasks are automated

A
  1. 3Ds: dull, dirty, dangerous
  2. multitasking, difficult or unpleasant tasks
  3. extention of human capability
  4. because technology makes it possible
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2
Q

4 stages/levels of automation

A
  1. information, acquisition, seleciton and filtering e.g. spelling checkers
  2. data integration

> pattern recognition, complex warning systems

  1. advisory systems

> collision avoidance systems

  1. control, execution of actions

> industrial robots

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3
Q

sheridan, 2002: what are the 8 levels of control

A
  1. human is in control
  2. system suggests different alternatives
  3. systems selects a single alternative
  4. system acts after approval of human
  5. systems provides limited time to stop action
  6. system acts and informs afterward
  7. system acts and informs when asked
  8. system is in control
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4
Q

Levels in control (Society of automotive engineers) (6)

A
  • Level 0: Automated system warns and may intervene momentarily.
  • Level 1: Driver and system share control of vehicle. Hands-on
  • Level 2: Automated system takes full control of vehicle. Hands-off
  • Level 3: Drivre can safely turn their attention from driving tasks but must be ready to intervene. Eyes off
  • Level 4: Level 3 + no driver attention required at all. Only in limited spaces. Mind-off.
  • Level 5: No human intervention. Steering wheel optional.
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5
Q

4 causes of system unreliability

A
  1. errors e.g. because of complexity
  2. use outside of operating range
  3. wrong settings are entered
  4. logic of system is not understood by user

> (who thinks it malfunctions)

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6
Q

what is mostly the case for system unreliability?

A

the user-system combination is unreliable, or the system is imperfect, not unreliable

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7
Q

what are manifestations of mistrust in an automated system?

A
  1. high false alarm rate
  2. failure to understand limitations of system
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8
Q

what are consequences of mistrust in a system?

A
  1. slow, inefficient
  2. errors (because warnings are not taken seriously)
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9
Q

why is overtrust in a system problematic?

A

actual reliability is hard to judge when few errors occur

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10
Q

what are consequences of overtrust in an automated system?

A

can be serious

  1. slow detection of failures
  2. poor situation awareness because user is not actively involved
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11
Q

what is the problem of “clumsy automation”?

A

> it makes easy tasks easier and hard tasks harder

> reduces workload in already low-workload tasks

> increases workload in already high-workload tasks

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12
Q

how is level of automation related to situational awareness and workload?

A

when automation goes up, workload and situation awareness go down

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13
Q

why can sophisticated automation lead to errors?

A

> complex tasks appear to become easy, leading to less emphasis on training

> lack of trainings leads to not understanding the automation, resulting in error

>>> training should be adapted to level of automation

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14
Q

what is lost when automation is used instead of communication between humans?

A

> human to human communication contains nonverbal information channels that can be lost with automation

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15
Q

when is implementation of automated systems well received?

when not?

A

generally

> automation that improves safety and unburdens the operator is well received

> automation introduced merely because technology exists /increases efficiency may not be well received

>>> operators may be skilled and proud

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16
Q

designing automation, what are strong points of human vs strong points of systems

A

human strong points

  1. perceiving patterns
  2. detection in noise
  3. generalization
  4. improvisation
  5. inductive reasoning

system strong points

  1. working with details
  2. computation
  3. deductive reasoning
  4. repetetive work
  5. monitoring
  6. use large databases
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17
Q

6 characteristics of “human centered automation”

A

human centered automation

  1. keeping human informed
  2. keeping human trained
  3. keeping human in the loop
  4. selecting appropriate levels and stages when automation is imperfect
  5. using flexible/adaptive automation
  6. managing the introduction and use of autiomation
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18
Q

5 relevant influences on the difficulty and speed of response selection

A
  1. decision complexity
  2. expectancy
  3. compatibility
  4. speed-accuracy tradeoff
  5. feedback
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19
Q

speed of the response is influenced by what?

A

strongly influenced by the amount of possible alternatives that could be selected

>>> complexity of the decision

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20
Q

name and explain the Hick-Hyman law

A

Hick Hyman Law: RT = a + b log2(n)

where a + b depend on tasks and individual

n is the number of options/stimuli

>>> describes a model of the reaction time depending on the number of choices

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21
Q

what does the Hick Hyman law suggests with respect to human information processing?

A

that humans process information at a constant rate

> log2(n) represents the information in bits

> log2(n) plotted against the RT is linear

22
Q

what is referred to as “decision complexity advantage”?

A

decision complexity advantage:

> when a user has to transmit a certain amount of information, generally it is more efficient using a small number of complex decisions than a larger amount of simple decisions

> e.g. keyboard vs morse code

23
Q

how does response expectancy influence the speed and accuracy of response selection?

A

> we perceive rapidly and accurately information that we expect

> we select more rapidly and accurately actions we expect to carry out than unexpected actions

24
Q

what is stimulus-response compatibility?

A

also called “display control compatibility”

> relationship between the location or movement of a control response and the locations or movement of the stimulus/display it is related to

25
Q

what are the 2 subconcepts of stimulus-response compatibility?

A
  1. location compatibility

> the control location should be close to the entitiy being controlled or the display of that entity

  1. movement compatibility

> the direction of movement of a control should be congruent with the direction of movement of the feedback indicator as well as the system movement itself

26
Q

how does accuracy relate to the speed of response?

A

in a lot of cases:

> more complex decision produce both slower reacting times and more errors

> speed and accuracy are positively correlated and thus do not trade off

27
Q

when can there be a speed-accuracy tradeoff?

A

Depends on the user strategy

> under time pressure: faster response and more errors

> when error is costly: slower response, less error

28
Q

which kind of feedback helpful?

when is it counterproductive?

A

feedback is helpful when instantenious

> a delay as small as 100ms can be counterproductive

29
Q

name and explain Fitt’s Law

A

Fitt’s law

MT = a + b log2(2A/W)

with A = amplitude of movement

and W = width of target

> is a function that models the movement time as a function of size of movement, size of target as well as tasks and individual parameters

30
Q

what is Gain?

what formula?

A

Gain is the amount the proportion between human output and system output

Gain = change in output /change in input

31
Q

name 4 types of position control devices

A
  1. direct control of position e.g. touch screen
  2. indirect control of position e.g. mouse, trackball
  3. indirect control of speed e.g. joystick
  4. voice control
32
Q

what are the advantages of voice input?

A

> hands and eyes are free

> large number of response alternatives possible

33
Q

5 recent improvements in voice control

A
  1. limited vocabularity improved
  2. errors because of small acoustic differences improved
  3. effects of noise
  4. effect of accent, stress
  5. improvements in deep RNNs
34
Q

continuous tracking: how does closed loop control work

A

works by negative feedback: operator tries to minimize error e(t)

> e(t) describes the difference between the desired and the actual position of the system

35
Q

explain the 3 different control orders

A

0th order: change position (mouse)

1st order: change speed (gas pedal)

2nd order: change acceleration (spacecraft)

> difficult because of oscillations

36
Q

why can higher order systems be difficult?

A

because of a lag in response and system output

> lower order systems can have that problem as well when delayed

37
Q

explain closed loop instability

A

closed loop instability

> also called negative feedback instability

> effort of operator to correct for error results in oscillation around desired position

38
Q

what are 3 factors that can cause closed loop instability?

A
  1. lag in system
  2. gain is too high
  3. input bandwidth is too high
39
Q

explain open loop control

A

open loop control:

> operator does not correct for error because he knows where system output needs to be and can precisely produce that goal

> he is not trying to correct for output may only be visible after lags

>>> closed loop instability is not an issue

40
Q

name 3 types of stressors

A
  1. environmental stressors
  2. psychological stressors
  3. fatigue, sleep disruption
41
Q

name 5 environmental stressors

A
  1. noise
  2. lighting
  3. motion
  4. air quality
  5. thermal stress
42
Q

what are 2 different kinds of motion stressors

A
  1. high frequency vibration

> disrupts tool use, readability

  1. low frequency vibration

> causes motion sickness

43
Q

psychological stressors depend on …?

A

cognitive appraisal

> different between novice/expert

> overconfidence

> feeling of being in control

44
Q

explain the yerkes-dodson law

A

> inverted “U” function for task performance depending on different levels of arousal

> shape depends on complexity of the task

45
Q

name 4 performance changes due to overarousal

A
  1. tunneling - visual & cognitive
  2. working memory deficits
  3. tendency to take most common action

> escaping building through entrance

  1. desire to take immediate action
46
Q

what is meant by “cognitive tunneling”?

A

cognitive tunneling

> e.g. using a single hypothesis

47
Q

what can be done to counteract impaired performance due to overarousal?

A
  1. simpler procedures
  2. limit use of working memory

> use check lists

  1. actions compatible with well known courses of action
  2. easy to use display and controls
  3. warning signals should not be disruptive
  4. training
48
Q

how to quantify workload?

what is optimal workload?

A

workload = time required for task /time available for task

> optimal workload = 0.8

  • Task performance
  • Secondary task performance
  • Physiological: eye movements
  • Subjective: 1 dimensional scale
49
Q

Overload consequences

A
  • Selective attention impairments
  • More important information receives more weight
  • Reduced accuracy
  • Use of simple strategy
50
Q

Remediation to overload

A
  • Task redesign, automation
  • Redesign environment, displays
  • Trainings
51
Q

4 Factors that make difficult to construct workload estimates

A
  • Determination of task times
  • Prioritization
  • Task demands
  • Task switch cost

Cognitive Psychology and its Applications 2019 (6 decks)

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